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Why I am optimistic about the silicon-photonic route to quantum computing
Open accessAbstract
This is a short overview explaining how building a large-scale, silicon-photonic quantum computer has been reduced to the creation of good sources of 3-photon entangled states (and may simplify further). Given such sources, each photon needs to pass through a small, constant, number of components, interfering with at most 2 other spatially nearby photons, and current photonics engineering has already demonstrated the manufacture of thousands of components on two-dimensional semiconductor chips with performance that, once scaled up, allows the creation of tens of thousands of photons entangled in a state universal for quantum computation. At present the fully integrated, silicon-photonic architecture we envisage involves creating the required entangled states by starting with single-photons produced non-deterministically by pumping silicon waveguides (or cavities) combined with on-chip filters and nanowire superconducting detectors to herald that a photon has been produced. These sources are multiplexed into being near-deterministic, and the single photons then passed through an interferometer to non-deterministically produce small entangled states—necessarily multiplexed to near-determinism again. This is followed by a “ballistic” scattering of the small-scale entangled photons through an interferometer such that some photons are detected, leaving the remainder in a large-scale entangled state which is provably universal for quantum computing implemented by single-photon measurements. There are a large number of questions regarding the optimum ways to make and use the final cluster state, dealing with static imperfections, constructing the initial entangled photon sources and so on, that need to be investigated before we can aim for millions of qubits capable of billions of computational time steps. The focus in this article is on the theoretical side of such questions.
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“an array of 18 SFWM-SPSs in SiO 2 -waveguides [47] (4 SFWM-SPSs in Si-microresonators [48]) can produce heralded single-photons with a 52% (50%) heralding efficiency and 95% (91%) photon indistinguishability from separated SPSs.”
From Integrated photonic quantum technologies (2020) · cites this paper as [48]
In the citing paper
“The first chip-to-chip entanglement distribution [73] ( Fig.3b ), and recently quantum teleportation [48] were demonstrated between two programmable Si-chips, that integrate all necessary components including the entangled photon sources and Bell analyser.”
From Integrated photonic quantum technologies (2020) · cites this paper as [48]
In the citing paper
“Recently, a state-of-the-art Si-photonic quantum device having an array of nearly-optimal FWM-SPSs in microresonators and high-quality reconfigurable circuits was coherently controlled to demonstrate and certificate the genuine multipartite entanglement [48].”
From Integrated photonic quantum technologies (2020) · cites this paper as [48]
In the citing paper
“This technology has seen enormous progress in recent years, [8][9][10][11] and may offer a realistic approach to realizing the complex circuits needed for scalable photonic quantum computing and quantum networks.12”
From Integrated-optics heralded controlled-NOT gate for polarization-encoded qubits (2018) · cites this paper as [12]
In the citing paper
“This is an attractive platform for QIP: it has room temperature operation, the possibility of robust miniaturisation through photonic integrated circuits; in general it harnesses the highly developed optical fibre-related technology for QIP purposes.38”
From Quantum generalisation of feedforward neural networks (2017) · cites this paper as [38]
In the citing paper
“Conventionally phase shifters built upon the electro-optic effect are known to work in the megahertz region and have extremely low loss.38”
From Quantum generalisation of feedforward neural networks (2017) · cites this paper as [38]
In the citing paper
“This circuit can be made more robust and miniaturised using silicon or silica optical waveguides.38”
From Quantum generalisation of feedforward neural networks (2017) · cites this paper as [38]
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“A single-photon and linear-optics version of measurement based quantum computation has also been thoroughly studied [2, 3].”
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“This technology has seen enormous progress in recent years [8–11], and may offer a realistic approach to realizing the complex circuits needed for scalable photonic quantum computing and quantum networks [12].”
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“(b) A 2D unit tiling implementing (a) [41].”
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“Deterministic single-photon sources monolithically integrated with silicon quantum PIC represent a new tool in quantum photonics [11], complementing heralded probabilistic sources [12] and offering very-largescale integration (VLSI) [13].”
MethodTelecom Networking with a Diamond Quantum Memory
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A feasible approach for automatically differentiable unitary coupled-cluster on quantum computers
Kottmann, J. S., Anand, A., & Aspuru‐Guzik, A. (2021) · Chemical Science · doi:10.1039/d0sc06627c · Cited by 87
Quantum-dot single-photon source on a CMOS silicon photonic chip integrated using transfer printing
Katsumi, R., Ota, Y., Osada, A., Yamaguchi, T., Tajiri, T., Kakuda, M., Iwamoto, S., Akiyama, H., & Arakawa, Y. (2019) · APL Photonics · doi:10.1063/1.5087263 · Cited by 84
Integrated Photonics for Quantum Communications and Metrology
Labonté, L., Alibart, O., D’Auria, V., Doutre, F., Etesse, J., Sauder, G., Martin, A., Picholle, É., & Tanzilli, S. (2024) · PRX Quantum · doi:10.1103/prxquantum.5.010101 · Cited by 92
Percolation thresholds for photonic quantum computing
Pant, M., Towsley, D., Englund, D. R., & Guha, S. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-08948-x · Cited by 83
“A major challenge, as expounded in [28] as well, is an experimental scheme to build an on-demand source of high-fidelity small entangled cluster states, e.”
BackgroundThree-dimensional entanglement on a silicon chip
Lu, L., Xia, L., Chen, Z., Chen, L., Yu, T., Tao, T., Ma, W., Pan, Y., Cai, X., Lu, Y., et al. (2020) · npj Quantum Information · doi:10.1038/s41534-020-0260-x · Cited by 77
Dual-rail encoding with superconducting cavities
Teoh, J. D., Winkel, P., Babla, H. K., Chapman, B. J., Claes, J., de Graaf, S. J., Garmon, J. W. O., Kalfus, W. D., Lu, Y., Maiti, A., et al. (2023) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2221736120 · Cited by 97
Silicon photonic devices for scalable quantum information applications
Feng, L., Zhang, M., Wang, J., Zhou, X., Qiang, X., Guo, G., & Ren, X. (2022) · Photonics Research · doi:10.1364/prj.464808 · Cited by 72
“Among those materials, silicon photonics is a good candidate because of its easy preparation, high integration density and excellent optical properties [33].”
BackgroundCryogenic operation of silicon photonic modulators based on the DC Kerr effect
Chakraborty, U., Carolan, J., Clark, G., Bunandar, D., Gilbert, G., Notaros, J., Watts, M. R., & Englund, D. R. (2020) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.403178 · Cited by 68
Beyond photon pairs—nonlinear quantum photonics in the high-gain regime: a tutorial
Quesada, N., Helt, L. G., Menotti, M., Liscidini, M., & Sipe, J. E. (2022) · Advances in Optics and Photonics · doi:10.1364/aop.445496 · Cited by 74
High-speed thin-film lithium niobate quantum processor driven by a solid-state quantum emitter
Sund, P. I., Lomonte, E., Paesani, S., Wang, Y., Carolan, J., Bart, N., Wieck, A. D., Ludwig, A., Midolo, L., Pernice, W. H. P., et al. (2023) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adg7268 · Cited by 76
“Central to photonic quantum technologies is the generation of highquality photonic states and fast low-loss programmable circuits for their routing and processing [15, 16].”
BackgroundScalable Squeezed-Light Source for Continuous-Variable Quantum Sampling
Vernon, Z., Quesada, N., Liscidini, M., Morrison, B., Menotti, M., Tan, K., & Sipe, J. E. (2019) · Physical Review Applied · doi:10.1103/physrevapplied.12.064024 · Cited by 70
Fundamental building block for all-optical scalable quantum networks
Lee, S.-W., Ralph, T. C., & Jeong, H. (2019) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.100.052303 · Cited by 72
Experimental time-reversed adaptive Bell measurement towards all-photonic quantum repeaters
Hasegawa, Y., Ikuta, R., Matsuda, N., Tamaki, K., Lo, H., Yamamoto, T., Azuma, K., & Imoto, N. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-08099-5 · Cited by 69
Photonic Indistinguishability of the Tin-Vacancy Center in Nanostructured Diamond
Martínez, J. A., Parker, R. A., Chen, K. C., Purser, C. M., Li, L., Michaels, C. P., Stramma, A. M., Debroux, R., Harris, I., Appel, M. H., et al. (2022) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.129.173603 · Cited by 70
Resonance Fluorescence from Waveguide-Coupled, Strain-Localized, Two-Dimensional Quantum Emitters
Errando-Herranz, C., Schöll, E., Picard, R., Laini, M., Gyger, S., Elshaari, A. W., Branny, A., Wennberg, U., Barbat, S., Renaud, T., et al. (2021) · ACS Photonics · doi:10.1021/acsphotonics.0c01653 · Cited by 65
Choi, H., Pant, M., Guha, S., & Englund, D. R. (2019) · npj Quantum Information · doi:10.1038/s41534-019-0215-2 · Cited by 68
Scheme for Universal High-Dimensional Quantum Computation with Linear Optics
Paesani, S., Bulmer, J. F. F., Jones, A. E., Santagati, R., & Laing, A. (2021) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.126.230504 · Cited by 71
Quantum computing and industrial information integration: A review
Lu, Y., Sigov, A., Ratkin, L., Ivanov, L. A., & Zuo, M. (2023) · Journal of Industrial Information Integration · doi:10.1016/j.jii.2023.100511 · Cited by 84
Mnaymneh, K., Dalacu, D., McKee, J., Lapointe, J., Haffouz, S., Weber, J. F., Northeast, D. B., Poole, P. J., Aers, G. C., & Williams, R. L. (2019) · Advanced Quantum Technologies · doi:10.1002/qute.201900021 · Cited by 62
From quantum optics to quantum technologies
Browne, D. E., Bose, S., Mintert, F., & Kim, M. S. (2017) · Progress in Quantum Electronics · doi:10.1016/j.pquantelec.2017.06.002 · Cited by 65
“Nevertheless, the key principles of all of these ingredients have been demonstrated, and linear optical quantum computing remains a strong candidate for the realisation of large-scale quantum computing [212].”
BackgroundAppel, M. H., Tiranov, A., Pabst, S., Chan, M. L., Starup, C., Wang, Y., Midolo, L., Tiurev, K., Scholz, S., Wieck, A. D., et al. (2022) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.128.233602 · Cited by 61
“The latter error reduces the measurement contrast in the XX and YY bases [12] and is additionally relevant for combining multiple smaller cluster states through entanglement fusion [2].”
BackgroundNanomechanical single-photon routing
Papon, C., Zhou, X., Thyrrestrup, H., Liu, Z., Stobbe, S., Schott, R., Wieck, A. D., Ludwig, A., Lodahl, P., & Midolo, L. (2019) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.6.000524 · Cited by 63
Towards low loss non-volatile phase change materials in mid index waveguides
Faneca, J., Zeimpekis, I., Ilie, S. T., Bucio, T. D., Grabska, K., Hewak, D. W., & Gardes, F. Y. (2021) · Neuromorphic Computing and Engineering · doi:10.1088/2634-4386/ac156e · Cited by 54
“tions such as quantum computing [18, 22, 23], microwave photonics [14], neuromorphic computing [24–26],”
BackgroundLow-loss, high-bandwidth fiber-to-chip coupling using capped adiabatic tapered fibers
Khan, S., Buckley, S. M., Chiles, J., Mirin, R. P., Nam, S. W., & Shainline, J. M. (2020) · APL Photonics · doi:10.1063/1.5145105 · Cited by 54
Mapping the design space of photonic topological states via deep learning
Singh, R., Agarwal, A., & Anthony, B. (2020) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.398926 · Cited by 55
Tiurev, K., Appel, M. H., Mirambell, P. L., Lauritzen, M. B., Tiranov, A., Lodahl, P., & Sørensen, A. S. (2022) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.105.l030601 · Cited by 58
Universal fault-tolerant measurement-based quantum computation
Brown, B. J., & Roberts, S. (2020) · Physical Review Research · doi:10.1103/physrevresearch.2.033305 · Cited by 73
The resurgence of the linear optics quantum interferometer — recent advances & applications
Tan, S.-H., & Rohde, P. P. (2019) · Reviews in Physics · doi:10.1016/j.revip.2019.100030 · Cited by 55
“For this reason, the future of linear optics interferometry is a bright one, a sentiment echoed by others [233], which will find inevitable applicability in the future quantum world.”
BackgroundPrimer on silicon neuromorphic photonic processors: architecture and compiler
de Lima, T. F., Tait, A. N., Mehrabian, A., Nahmias, M. A., Huang, C., Peng, H.-T., Márquez, B. A., Miscuglio, M., El‐Ghazawi, T., Sorger, V. J., et al. (2018) · Nanophotonics · doi:10.1515/nanoph-2020-0172 · Cited by 54
“Silicon photonic systems have been proposed for quantum processing models, including quantum simulation and quantum computing [38, 39].”
Integrated photonics in quantum technologies
Giordani, T., Hoch, F., Carvacho, G., Spagnolo, N., & Sciarrino, F. (2023) · Rivista Del Nuovo Cimento · doi:10.1007/s40766-023-00040-x · Cited by 62
Phillips, C. L., Brash, A. J., Godsland, M., Martin, N. J., Foster, A. P., Tomlinson, A., Dost, R., Babazadeh, N., Sala, E. M., Wilson, L. R., et al. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-55024-6 · Cited by 52
“Many quantum communication and quantum information processing applications require a source of indistinguishable single photons 1–5 .”
BackgroundCalderbank-Shor-Steane holographic quantum error-correcting codes
Harris, R. J., McMahon, N. A., Brennen, G. K., & Stace, T. M. (2018) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.98.052301 · Cited by 60
Epitaxial quantum dots: a semiconductor launchpad for photonic quantum technologies
Zhou, X., Zhai, L., & Liu, J. (2022) · Photonics Insights · doi:10.3788/pi.2022.r07 · Cited by 56
“The splitting ratio of the switch characterizes how well the photons can be completely routed from one port to another, which, together with stochastic errors and losses, eventually affects the fidelity of the target quantum state [230,231] .”
BackgroundTunable quantum emitters on large-scale foundry silicon photonics
Larocque, H., Buyukkaya, M. A., Errando-Herranz, C., Papon, C., Harper, S., Tao, M., Carolan, J., Lee, C., Richardson, C. J. K., Leake, G., et al. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-50208-0 · Cited by 61
“Integrating other components such as on-chip SNSPDs 70,71 could also enable more complex types of on-chip photonic computations, including more complex quantum information processing tasks 72 and machine learning 73,74 .”
Silicon photonic quantum computing with spin qubits
Yan, X., Gitt, S., Lin, B., Witt, D. M., Abdolahi, M., Afifi, A. E., Azem, A., Darcie, A., Wu, J., Awan, K. M., et al. (2021) · APL Photonics · doi:10.1063/5.0049372 · Cited by 51
Cryogenic operation of silicon photonic modulators based on the DC Kerr effect
Chakraborty, U., Carolan, J., Clark, G., Bunandar, D., Gilbert, G. N., Notaroš, J., Watts, M. R., & Englund, D. (2020) · DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) · Cited by 49
Conceptual Understanding through Efficient Automated Design of Quantum Optical Experiments
Krenn, M., Kottmann, J. S., Tischler, N., & Aspuru‐Guzik, A. (2021) · Physical Review X · doi:10.1103/physrevx.11.031044 · Cited by 69
“Heralded GHZ states provide the resources for definite demonstration of deterministic violations of local-realistic worldviews [46] and are among the most promising building blocks for photonic quantum computation [7, 40].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Rudolph, T.
- Affiliations
- Imperial College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Rudolph, Terry
- ORCID
- Rudolph, Terry
- Venue
- APL Photonics
- Publisher
- AIP Publishing
- Published
- 2017-03-01
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 3
- ISSN
- 2378-0967 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2502799522
- Cited by
- 350
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 43 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 9
- FWCI
- 19.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- APL Photonics (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/L024020/1)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Information and Cryptography
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Quantum Computing Algorithms and Architecture
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Photonic and Optical Devices
- Keywords
- silicon photonics, quantum computing, cluster states, three-photon entanglement, entangled photon sources, heralded single-photon source, silicon waveguides, interferometer, universal quantum computation, integrated photonics
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