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Why I am optimistic about the silicon-photonic route to quantum computing
Open accessAbstract
This is a short overview explaining how building a large-scale, silicon-photonic quantum computer has been reduced to the creation of good sources of 3-photon entangled states (and may simplify further). Given such sources, each photon needs to pass through a small, constant, number of components, interfering with at most 2 other spatially nearby photons, and current photonics engineering has already demonstrated the manufacture of thousands of components on two-dimensional semiconductor chips with performance that, once scaled up, allows the creation of tens of thousands of photons entangled in a state universal for quantum computation. At present the fully integrated, silicon-photonic architecture we envisage involves creating the required entangled states by starting with single-photons produced non-deterministically by pumping silicon waveguides (or cavities) combined with on-chip filters and nanowire superconducting detectors to herald that a photon has been produced. These sources are multiplexed into being near-deterministic, and the single photons then passed through an interferometer to non-deterministically produce small entangled states—necessarily multiplexed to near-determinism again. This is followed by a “ballistic” scattering of the small-scale entangled photons through an interferometer such that some photons are detected, leaving the remainder in a large-scale entangled state which is provably universal for quantum computing implemented by single-photon measurements. There are a large number of questions regarding the optimum ways to make and use the final cluster state, dealing with static imperfections, constructing the initial entangled photon sources and so on, that need to be investigated before we can aim for millions of qubits capable of billions of computational time steps. The focus in this article is on the theoretical side of such questions.
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“an array of 18 SFWM-SPSs in SiO 2 -waveguides [47] (4 SFWM-SPSs in Si-microresonators [48]) can produce heralded single-photons with a 52% (50%) heralding efficiency and 95% (91%) photon indistinguishability from separated SPSs.”
From Integrated photonic quantum technologies (2020) · cites this paper as [48]
In the citing paper
“The first chip-to-chip entanglement distribution [73] ( Fig.3b ), and recently quantum teleportation [48] were demonstrated between two programmable Si-chips, that integrate all necessary components including the entangled photon sources and Bell analyser.”
From Integrated photonic quantum technologies (2020) · cites this paper as [48]
In the citing paper
“Recently, a state-of-the-art Si-photonic quantum device having an array of nearly-optimal FWM-SPSs in microresonators and high-quality reconfigurable circuits was coherently controlled to demonstrate and certificate the genuine multipartite entanglement [48].”
From Integrated photonic quantum technologies (2020) · cites this paper as [48]
In the citing paper
“This technology has seen enormous progress in recent years, [8][9][10][11] and may offer a realistic approach to realizing the complex circuits needed for scalable photonic quantum computing and quantum networks.12”
From Integrated-optics heralded controlled-NOT gate for polarization-encoded qubits (2018) · cites this paper as [12]
In the citing paper
“This is an attractive platform for QIP: it has room temperature operation, the possibility of robust miniaturisation through photonic integrated circuits; in general it harnesses the highly developed optical fibre-related technology for QIP purposes.38”
From Quantum generalisation of feedforward neural networks (2017) · cites this paper as [38]
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“Conventionally phase shifters built upon the electro-optic effect are known to work in the megahertz region and have extremely low loss.38”
From Quantum generalisation of feedforward neural networks (2017) · cites this paper as [38]
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“This circuit can be made more robust and miniaturised using silicon or silica optical waveguides.38”
From Quantum generalisation of feedforward neural networks (2017) · cites this paper as [38]
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- M. Gimeno-Segovia , “Toward practical linear optical quantum computing,” Ph.D. thesis, Imperial College London, 2015.
- 2010, Optical Quantum Information Processing
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Damodarakurup, S., Ahmed, S. L., Pidishety, S., & Soorat, R. (2024) · Journal of quantum computing · doi:10.32604/jqc.2024.054000 · Cited by 1
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Ramesh, A., Wang, I., Kramnik, D., Cabanillas, J. M. F., Stojanovic, V. M., Popović, M. A., & Kumar, P. (2022) · Quantum 2.0 Conference and Exhibition · doi:10.1364/quantum.2022.qth2b.4 · Cited by 1
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“More broadly, implementation of general quantum computation with linear optics has been a theoretically rich direction for quantum information[61] and a still nascent but promising experimental platform[112].”
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Khalid, A. (2018) · Libraries and Cultural Resources (University of Calgary) · doi:10.11575/prism/33073
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Li, Z., Shi, C., Yang, Y., & Zhu, S. (2022) · International Conference on Networking, Communications and Information Technology (NetCIT) · doi:10.1109/netcit57419.2022.00038
“Input variables in an algorithm are often encoded in the path, polarization, time (see figure 12) of single-photon, though many other methods exist [19].”
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Sen, A., Goodenough, K., & Towsley, D. (2025) · Quantum · doi:10.22331/q-2025-11-17-1911
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“A number of different quantum technologies use single photon sources as an essential component, including secure communications using quantum key distribution 1, 2 , metrology 3 , and scalable optical quantum computing 4, 5 .”
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Manfreda-Schulz, E., Deenadayalan, V., Ciminelli, M., Palone, T., Preble, S. F., & Howland, G. A. (2024) · SPIE Quantum Information Science, Sensing, and Computation · doi:10.1117/12.3021379
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Metadata
- Authors
- Rudolph, T.
- Affiliations
- Imperial College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Rudolph, Terry
- ORCID
- Rudolph, Terry
- Venue
- APL Photonics
- Publisher
- AIP Publishing
- Published
- 2017-03-01
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 3
- ISSN
- 2378-0967 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2502799522
- Cited by
- 350
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 43 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 9
- FWCI
- 19.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- APL Photonics (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/L024020/1)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Information and Cryptography
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Quantum Computing Algorithms and Architecture
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Photonic and Optical Devices
- Keywords
- silicon photonics, quantum computing, cluster states, three-photon entanglement, entangled photon sources, heralded single-photon source, silicon waveguides, interferometer, universal quantum computation, integrated photonics
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