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From Isovists to Visibility Graphs: A Methodology for the Analysis of Architectural Space
Open accessAbstract
An isovist, or viewshed, is the area in a spatial environment directly visible from a location within the space. Here we show how a set of isovists can be used to generate a graph of mutual visibility between locations. We demonstrate that this graph can also be constructed without reference to isovists and that we are in fact invoking the more general concept of a visibility graph. Using the visibility graph, we can extend both isovist and current graph-based analyses of architectural space to form a new methodology for the investigation of configurational relationships. The measurement of local and global characteristics of the graph, for each vertex or for the system as a whole, is of interest from an architectural perspective, allowing us to describe a configuration with reference to accessibility and visibility, to compare from location to location within a system, and to compare systems with different geometries. Finally we show that visibility graph properties may be closely related to manifestations of spatial perception, such as way-finding, movement, and space use.
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TL;DR
The paper shows how a set of isovists can be converted into a visibility graph of mutually visible locations, and argues that this graph supports local and global configurational analysis of architectural space. It demonstrates the method on simple configurations and built examples, including a Tate Gallery analysis where mean shortest path length correlates with room occupancy.
Key findings
- A first-order visibility graph can be constructed directly from mutually visible locations and is identical to the corresponding first-order isovist graph; second-order visibility relationships are a “flattened” form of the first-order graph.
- Neighbourhood size \(k_i\) corresponds to the isovist and is linearly related to isovist area \(A_i\); clustering coefficient \(C_i\) is a local measure of relational/self-contained visibility; mean shortest path length \(\bar{L}_i\) is a global measure of configurational accessibility.
- In the Tate Gallery, mean shortest path length averaged per room showed an exponential correlation with observed room occupancy (\(R^2 = 0.63\)); the only significant outlier was the Tate Gallery shop, the only room not used as gallery space.
- Case analyses of Villa Mairea, Farnsworth House, and the Barcelona Pavilion show how \(C_i\) and \(\bar{L}_i\) patterns distinguish private/social spaces, visibility versus permeability, and local versus global configurational effects.
Methods
- The visibility graph is built by selecting generating locations on a regular “human-scale” grid of around one metre, using locations as vertices and mutual visibility as edges; a permeability graph is the special case constructed at floor level, optionally including furniture and obstacles.
- Graph measures analysed are neighbourhood size, clustering coefficient, and mean shortest path length; values are mapped at each generating location and compared with isovist fields and prior graph-based spatial analyses.
- Case studies include Villa Mairea (1.0 m grid at eye level, floors linked via staircases), Farnsworth House (visibility and permeability with furniture), Barcelona Pavilion (visibility and permeability), and the Tate Gallery (public first-floor spaces observed five times in a day and averaged; occupancy compared with \(\bar{L}_i\), plus a Euclidean \(\bar{L}_i\) comparison).
Limitations
- The paper states that there is no compelling way to choose one graph-construction approach over another, that grid resolution is limited by computing power, that perfect resolution is impossible, and that a more systematic method for selecting and generating point locations is needed.
- It also states that populations in a space will change visual fields, that people experience space through personal memory of previous spaces, and that the Farnsworth analysis did not consider built fabric, context, or the glass envelope.
- Evident from the text: the Tate correlation is observational rather than causal, and graph measures depend on chosen grid, resolution, and whether obstacles or furniture are included; in small or shallow systems, \(\bar{L}_i\) patterns may resemble neighbourhood-size patterns, limiting their distinctiveness.
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In the paper
“the points located below the T-crossbar in figure 9(a) form distinctly coloured triangular regions according to their”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“analysis of a plan of Farnsworth House with C i values results in a gradual partitioning of space, where information is seen to vary continuously across the space and within e-spaces [figure 7( a)]”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
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In the paper
“If an individual leaves one of these triangular zones, then they are entering a zone where, one step away, they can see a larger area, as shown in figure 9(b).”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
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In the paper
“In fact, if once inside we consider the walls as containing our `visibility' (or at least our sense of enclosure), then there is no location within the house where the points of an isovist on either side of the core element connect in a loop behind it [figure 8(c)].”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The external envelope of Farnsworth House is made entirely of glass.
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In the paper
“At a distance, the clustering coefficient will remain relatively high, because the connections between isovists on either side of the house are realised in a loop around it [figure 8(a)].”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The external envelope of Farnsworth House is made entirely of glass.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In larger and more complex systems than the Barcelona Pavilion, the local (such as k i ) and global (such as”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
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“this kind of partitioning does not show up in any obvious first-order partition, including such detailed descriptions as those of endpoint partitions by Peponis et al.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Peponis et al
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In the paper
“The correspondence is demonstrated more clearly by inspection of a scatter plot of observed room occupancy against”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
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In the paper
“L i values for the main level of the Tate Gallery, and the difference between the local and the global spatial measure is very obvious, now that many changes of direction are required for full exploration of the space.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
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In the paper
“Thus, in the visibility model,”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
- Probably not a substantial claim. 38
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
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In the paper
“The figure shows that the most private spaces, such as bedrooms and study rooms, are highly clustered whereas social spaces, such as the living rooms on each floor and ground-floor sitting rooms offer multidirectional fields of view and therefore low C i , values, hinting atöwithout intruding onöthe range of the more private spaces.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“(We assume adequate coverage of generating locations throughout the system.In figure 3 the coverage is not sufficient and the isovist area no longer corresponds perfectly to the neighbourhood size.)”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Neighbourhood size
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“there is a maximum at locations closer to the central element, which is more self-contained, with almost convex visual fields.The lowest values occur further away where isovists are multidirectional”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
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In the paper
“A best-fit line through the data gives a reasonable exponential correlation between the two variables and it is noticeable that the only significant outlier found is the Tate Gallery shop, which is the only room that is not used as gallery space.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The Tate Gallery shop is the only room that is not used as gallery space.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although there is `informational stability' with respect to vertical surfaces there are clear variations in the internal relational properties of the isovists within these spaces.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
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In the paper
“When analysed in terms of accessibility, however, the core”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
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In the paper
“As we move towards the entrance, through the terraces, the space becomes gradually more clustered and only the central core inside the building, visible through the glass, features as an object [figure 8(b)].”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The external envelope of Farnsworth House is made entirely of glass.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We have shown results comparing the level of occupation of rooms found in a building with the results of an”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Conclusion
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In the paper
“The main difference in the configurational patterns generated results from the way the large pool is analysed.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The isovist polygon at p 1 is more convex (in terms of M 2 and P) than that at p 2 , yet the value of C i at p 2 is higher.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
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In the paper
“In both cases, path length analysis produces a pattern that resembles that of neighbourhood size, or area of visual fields, and therefore is similar to Benedikt's area measurement, owing to the fact that this is a small or shallow system where the architect introduces partitions to structure the space without disturbing too much its continuity”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Benedikt
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“Note that the isovist field lines are continuous, whereas the discrete generating locations used to construct the visibility graph can be seen in the second diagram.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Neighbourhood size
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In the paper
“However, despite the elegance of Benedikt's isovist methodology, and its close relationship to theories of visual perception and spatial description, applications of the isovist in architectural analysis have been limited to a small number of studies.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Introduction
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In the paper
“In a representation on a two-dimensional plane, the graph edges are undirected (that is, if v 1 can see v 2 , then v 2 can see v 1 ).”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Constructing an isovist graph
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally we show that visibility graph properties may be closely related to manifestations of spatial perception, such as way-finding, movement, and space use.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Abstract
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In the paper
“The clustering coefficient and mean shortest path length have previously been used together to characterise graph systems as a whole (see Watts and Strogatz, 1998) and we discuss how this characterisation might be applied to visibility graphs of environments in further work.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Constructing an isovist graph
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Watts and Strogatz, 1998 source
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In the paper
“In a closed convex area there is some potential for interaction, whereas in a junction there are numerous, but different, opportunities to form intervisible links.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
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In the paper
“Indeed, much of the viewshed literature still concentrates on mapping the properties of single viewsheds as fields, not on the relationships between viewsheds.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Related work
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In the paper
“Many possible measures of an undirected graph are also applicable to a directed graph, including those we illustrate in this paper, so that the generality of the method presented is unaffected.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Constructing an isovist graph
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In the paper
“In addition, de Arruda Campos (1997) finds good correlation with the number of axial lines intersecting at an urban space (implying a multidirectional visual field, that is, low C i ) and the number of people making informal use of the square”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites de Arruda Campos (1997)
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- Not matched
In the paper
“For example, Benedikt and Burnham (1985) show that perception of the size of a space is affected by the variance of the radials of an isovist and the perimeter (both indicators of convexity).”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Benedikt and Burnham (1985)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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- Not matched
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In the paper
“To be clear, a `permeability graph' is the special case of a visibility graph constructed at floor level.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Constructing an isovist graph
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In the paper
“As a spatial description, e-spaces present a different approach to visibility graphs, primarily because they are derived by relating space to built form, rather than derived from the space as it might be experienced.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
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In the paper
“First, the geometric formulation of isovist measures means that they index purely local properties of space, and the visual relationship between the current location and the whole spatial environment is missedöincluding the fact that the internal visual relationships between locations within the isovist are ignored.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Introduction
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In the paper
“However, in other representations visibility is not necessarily mutualöfor example, viewshed analyses often consider viewer height.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Constructing an isovist graph
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In the paper
“Because movement in some sense involves making decisions about which parts of one's current visual information to leave behind, the clustering coefficient is potentially related to the decisionmaking process in way-finding and navigation and certainly marks out key decision points within complex configurations.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
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In the paper
“However, although finding a sufficient set by this method is possible, it is not guaranteed to be a minimal covering set (Davis and Benedikt, 1979).”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Constructing an isovist graph
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Davis and Benedikt, 1979 source
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and that we are in fact invoking the more general concept of a visibility graph.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Abstract
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In the paper
“Now if the set of generating locations covers the entire space (at some uniform resolution, so that for our purposes it fully describes the space), then this set can be thought of as equivalent to the isovist itself.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Neighbourhood size
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In the paper
“If the isovist being considered is almost a convex polygon, then almost all the point locations within the neighbourhood will be able to see each other, and hence C i will tend to one.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, as isovists can be drawn at any location in space, a graph of lines-of-sight connections may be constructed easily, at any required degree of spatial resolution, by using the visual relationships between isovists.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Related work
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In the paper
“Despite their general applicability, the ability of these maps to represent and quantify spatial configurations still has one major drawback: each line or convex region is represented by a node in the graph, and so only a single graph measure can be defined for points along the whole length of the line, or all points within the convex region.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Related work
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In the paper
“By reinterpreting the set of isovists as a graph we have made the system more amenable to a new set of analytic tools, while retaining a mapping back to the original isovist interpretation through the neighbourhood size k i of a vertex.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Conclusion
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In the paper
“We have proposed two further measurements of the graph that may be useful for understanding the perception and use of architectural spaces.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Conclusion
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In the paper
“However, by looking at relationships at both a local and a global level, we hope to capture the common experience of that space, and so visibility graph analysis may represent a step towards exploring the relationship between architects, as designers of spaces, and users, as architects of their own experience of space.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Conclusion
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In the paper
“We must of course be careful to note that any population of a space will lead to changes in the visual field which we have not considered and that members of the population will experience a space through their personal memory of the previous spaces they themselves have moved through.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Conclusion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“accessibility of every location in the spatial system, it has a significant advantage over axial and convex configurational analysis, which, for example, is unable to identify variation across `open-plan' layouts.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The pavilion was built in 1929 for the German participation in the Barcelona exhibition and demolished afterwards.It was retrieved through photographs and plans, to be rebuilt in 1986 (for a detailed discussion, see Futagawa and Neumeyer, 1995).”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Futagawa and Neumeyer, 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedSingle caseTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hence the clustering coefficient is not strictly a convexity measure, but perhaps more related to how `self-contained' the information in a particular isovist is.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this case, because they cannot `see' the top spaces of the configuration, an individual occupying that location would not know that there might be a place `around the corner'.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although a correspondence of this sort might be expected in view of the fact that we are mapping a measure of centrality, it is worth demonstrating that this is not a necessary result.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The comparison shows how the space has been manipulated by the architect to arrange views across the pool and the movement around it.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The clustering coefficient C i demonstrates a local measure of the graph, since it depends only on the relation between vertices in a neighbourhood”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Conclusion
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This indicates that comparing the”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The isovists we employ are used to derive the graph of intervisible locations and hence the visibility graph is a tool with which we can begin consciously to explore the visibility and permeability relations in spatial systems.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The sensitivity of clustering coefficient analysis to the size of object in the environment would have a significant impact if we were to consider not just the internal relationships in Farnsworth House, but also its relationship to the surrounding environment.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Benedikt uses the plans of this building to investigate isovist ^field contour maps, demonstrating that the area of the visual field changes continuously with movement, as surfaces disappear and others come into view.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Mean shortest path length
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Benedikt
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“whereas the mean shortest path length”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Conclusion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“and Conroy (2000) notes correspondence between `junctions' and places where people pause on journeys.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Conroy (2000)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, because C i is not just a measure of geometric `spikiness', but also a measure of how much objects of varying sizes disrupt the space, it may improve our understanding of how a space is perceived.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: People will not usually be fooled by adding a pillar to a space; through movement they will still perceive the space as a whole.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The measures are justified to some extent by the application of similar metrics to graphs of urban and building environments, and by their relevance to ongoing research; however, they are also intended as examples of the wider set of graph measures available.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Conclusion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, the analysis we have made has not considered the built fabric, or the relation of the interior to the building's context.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any pair of mutually visible locations within the isovist area contribute to the overall C i value; thus any system with `visibility loops' will display higher C i values than those without.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Clustering coefficient
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this sense, sets of locations within the isovist of a point determine conditions of copresence of occupants and hence potential action and interaction.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This allows us to discuss any measurement of the graph in terms of its spatial meaning.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“average clustering coefficient and the characteristic path length (the average of the mean shortest path length for the whole system) have been used by Watts and Strogatz (1998) to analyse small worlds networks.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Further work
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Watts and Strogatz (1998) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“According to van Fraassen's scientific empiricism (1980, pages 76 ^91) our interpretation of any graph will be limited by the ability of our measures to distinguish between different configurations, so we can only describe a graph through the number of metrics we invent to classify it.”
§ From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space > Further work
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van Fraassen, 1980 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Isovists can be meaningfully generated throughout a space.
“Following Benedikt, we assume that isovists can be meaningfully generated throughout a space”
The authors state this as an assumption.
It is useful to examine isovist properties (whether local or relational) throughout a system.
“and furthermore that it is useful to examine isovist properties (whether local or relational) throughout a system.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
There is adequate coverage of generating locations throughout the system.
“(We assume adequate coverage of generating locations throughout the system.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The external envelope of Farnsworth House is made entirely of glass.
“the external envelope of Farnsworth House is made entirely of glass”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Tate Gallery shop is the only room that is not used as gallery space.
“the Tate Gallery shop, which is the only room that is not used as gallery space”
The paper relies on this without support.
People will not usually be fooled by adding a pillar to a space; through movement they will still perceive the space as a whole.
“people will not usually be fooled by such an addition [figure 5(b)].Through movement they will still be able to perceive the space as a whole”
Citations
Cites
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Natural movement: or, configuration and attraction in urban pedestrian movement
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Self-citationNetworks, Dynamics, and the Small‐World Phenomenon
Watts, D. J. (1999) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/210318 · Cited by 1,510
Flagged first, then by citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 901–970 of 970
Ritual Place-Making in the Roman House
Mol, E. M. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780198912835.003.0008
Mol, E. M. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780198912835.003.0005
Mol, E. M. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780198912835.003.0001
The Style of the Nile and Posthuman Embodiment
Mol, E. M. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780198912835.003.0007
Isovist graph generating method for structural expression of a floor plan
Odawara, H., & Takizawa, A. (2025) · International Journal of Architectural Computing · doi:10.1177/14780771251362413 · Cited by 2
Combining Experiential and Spatial Data for Immersive AR Narrative Creation: A Phased Methodology
Adhikari, N., Lilley, B., Radice, M., Fitzgerald, S., McLean, A., & Reilly, D. F. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-12408-1_8
Predicting building layout structure and features via planar duality and graph neural networks
Hu, K., Zhang, N., Yao, T., et al. (2025) · Automation in Construction · doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2025.106681
Isovists: Spatio-Visual Mathematics in Architecture
Dawes, M. J., & Ostwald, M. J. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-70658-0_5-4
Kato, Y., Chan, F., & Yuen, B. (2025) · Social Networks · doi:10.1016/j.socnet.2025.12.006
Fu, C. (2025) · Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering · doi:10.1080/13467581.2025.2607843
Wayfinding challenges in morphologically complex educational buildings
Mohareb, N., & El-Feki, S. (2026) · Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning · doi:10.1680/jurdp.25.00033
Rapakko, J. (2025) · JOURNAL OF GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY · doi:10.32028/jga.v10i.3354
Yeşil, M., Açıkgöz, R. N., & Şentürk, E. (2025) · DergiPark (Istanbul University)
Zhang, M., Hsieh, C.-M., Ni, Y., Wang, X., & Shen, Y. (2026) · Environment and Planning B Urban Analytics and City Science · doi:10.1177/23998083261424460
Space Syntax Theory in Tourism Studies: A Scoping Review
Shang, Z., Zhao, C., & Cai, A. (2026) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440251413384 · Cited by 4
“Furthermore, (e) the development of visibility maps and related metrics (Turner et al., 2001) has led to research exploring how visual fields within a spatial configuration shape visitors’ spatial cognition (Lee et al., 2023).”
van Buuren, L. P. G., Derks, D., & Mohammadi, M. M. (2026) · Journal of dementia and Alzheimer's disease · doi:10.3390/jdad3010010
“Furthermore, a visibility graph analysis (VGA) as a space syntax technique was conducted to identify the most and least visible spaces in the corridors (software depthmapX 0.30 Tasos Varoudis, grid of 200, global measures ‘ n ’) [58].”
InfluentialSpatial reorganization of lost historical contents in Mosul cultural museum
Sami, M. W., & Abdali, A. A. (2026) · Frontiers of Architectural Research · doi:10.1016/j.foar.2025.12.013
Şuta, O., & Aydin, M. F. (2026) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings16051077
Barra, S., Louafi, S., & Kacha, L. (2025) · Spatium · doi:10.2298/spat251214011b
Interiorismo comercial: El diseño interior como estrategia de rentabilidad en los pisos de venta
Escárcega, F. E. A., Cuéllar, L. J. R., de León, M. E. E. D., Rincón, I. L., Carmona, R. S., Gutiérrez, A. A. R. E., Adoumieh, M. Á. D., Santiago, N. L. Q., Córdoba, S. N. B., & Ramírez, A. S. (2026) · Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes eBooks · doi:10.33064/uaa/978-607-2638-99-0
Choi, S. (2026) · Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering · doi:10.1080/13467581.2026.2620931
Spatial Perspective Taking in Interior Design: A Comparison of World-in-Miniature and Cross Reality
Welti, D., Lutfallah, M., Cheng, L., et al. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2026.3680734
“…visibility-based methods such as isovists and visibility graph analysis characterize what is visible from each location and how visibility changes throughout a space, and were used to reason about experiential qualities such as exposure, privacy, and visual accessibility across a layout [3,41].”
Plan-based occlusion maps: Theoretical overview and parametric variations
Christenson, M., & Quach, J. (2026) · Environment and Planning B Urban Analytics and City Science · doi:10.1177/23998083261445136
Çanakçıoğlu, N. G., Şalgamcıoğlu, M. E., Ünlü, A., Edgü, E., Ciftci, I. E., & Bas, B. (2026) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-026-10326-4
Li, J., WENRUI, Z., & Xue, M. (2026) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings16101929
An Inverted-U Relationship Between Spatial Openness and Cognitive Engagement: 3D Isovist and EEG
Park, S. H., & Jun, H. J. (2026) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings16101938
Liu, H., Lu, W., Zhu, X., Li, N., & Zhang, F. (2026) · Ain Shams Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.asej.2026.104223
Post-pandemic library design: spatial configuration and visual accessibility for enhanced wayfinding
Park, H., & Lim, H. (2026) · Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering · doi:10.1080/13467581.2026.2679895
Şuta, O., & Zencirkıran, A. (2026) · Architectural Science Review · doi:10.1080/00038628.2026.2672926
“…integrated spatial analysis framework that combines Space Syntax, Graph-Theoretical measures and Visibility Graph Analysis (VGA) to examine how hospital plan typologies relate to interior accessibility (Hillier 2007; Hillier and Hanson 1984; Porta, Crucitti, and Latora 2006; Turner et al., 2001).”
Lei, Y., Cao, L., Zhao, Y., et al. (2026) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings16112212
Dwell-photo nodes in classical garden tourism: a multimodal spatial analysis of Yipu
Zhang, F., Wu, Z., & Zhou, X. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1772537
Comparative study on spatial morphology of Lou Lim Ioc Park in Macau based on space syntax
Zhou, J., Wang, S., Xie, X., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Built Environment · doi:10.3389/fbuil.2026.1810085
More Than a Container: Spatial Layout as a Cognitive Lever for Memory in Virtual Reality Heritage
Ning, Z., Jiang, K., He, Z., Ming, S., Yuan, H., & Sun, F. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-30073-7_11
Zhang, H., Yuan, S., Xian, W., Liu, Z., & Mu, N. (2026) · Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tust.2026.107892
Correa-Jaramillo, R., & Torres-Gutiérrez, M. (2026) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su18136697
Weighted 3D visibility graph: A distance-based extension of visibility graph analysis
Azizabad, S. O., & Mahdavinejad, M. (2026) · Environment and Planning B Urban Analytics and City Science · doi:10.1177/23998083261465711
Spatial Visibility Analysis of Underground Railway Stations Based on CPTED Principles
정상필Jung, S., & Kim, J. (2026) · Lecture notes in electrical engineering · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-7896-2_31
Wang, Y., Liu, M., Yang, Y., & Zhou, J. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-30424-7_18
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Qi, H., Zhang, J., han, J., Cheng, J., Yuan, Z., Li, J., & Li, L. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.7068525
Nimpuno, W. B., Nurdini, A., & Pratiwi, W. D. (2026) · Lecture notes in civil engineering · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-6051-6_15
Harrouni, R. E., Romani, Z., Laaroussi, N., et al. (2026) · Architectural Engineering and Design Management · doi:10.1080/17452007.2026.2694388
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Guo, P., Sang, Y., Wang, Y., et al. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10443080/v1
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Hu, X., Gu, J.-D., & Brettner, F. (2026) · Sustainable Futures · doi:10.1016/j.sftr.2026.102053
Ghoddusifar, S. H. (2026) · Nexus Network Journal · doi:10.1007/s00004-026-00916-5
Zhu, D., Zhu, Q., & Xu, H. (2026) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su18168319
Park, H., & Lim, H. (2026) · Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering · doi:10.1080/13467581.2026.2709256
Ergün, R. (2026) · Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências · doi:10.1590/0001-3765202620250949
Zhao, Z., Tinghua Ai, A., Ding, X., et al. (2026) · ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information · doi:10.3390/ijgi15090392
“Spatial cognition research on visibility graphs further shows that the configuration of architectural space affects how built environments are perceived and navigated [27].”
Wang, Y., Wu, L., & Li, Y. (2026) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings16173488
The Role of Interior Spatial Connectivity in Museum Visitor Experience: A Space Syntax Investigation
Fatima-tu-Zuhra (2026) · Journal of Design and Textiles · doi:10.32350/jdt.51.01
“Space syntax analyses such as axial mapping and visibility graphs point out highly connected areas in the museum space, informing architects about designing spaces to favor smooth transitions among galleries and exhibit areas [6], [17].”
Feng, Y., & IWASAKI, K. (2026) · Architecture · doi:10.3390/architecture6030164
“Visibility Graph Analysis (VGA), by comparison, represents mutual visibility relationships among locations within a spatial configuration [24].”
Hanash, Z. S., & Al-Tameemi, O. A. (2026) · IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science · doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1666/1/012017
“Space Syntax has been used to identify systematic spatial centrality and segregation in historic urban environments where accessibility can be intuitively ascertained by irregular street patterns and visual complexity [12, 17].”
InfluentialWang, J., Tian, J., Shi, Z., et al. (2026) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings16183696
Soleimani, M., & Golabi, M. (2026) · Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering · doi:10.1080/13467581.2026.2740945
Chen, J., Wang, J., Gao, W., et al. (2026) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2026.115342
Multi-Storey Housing Transformation in Diyarbakır (1985-2005): A Space Syntax Analysis
BİÇEN, A., & Vural, S. (2026) · Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.17798/bitlisfen.1898040
Alfirevic, D., Simonović-Alfirević, S., Njegić, T., et al. (2026) · Architecture · doi:10.3390/architecture6040176
Can visibility-based metrics predict soundscape perception in cities?
Fang, X., Varoudis, T., Oberman, T., et al. (2026) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2026.105809
Assessing Visual Connectivity at Property Crime Hotspots in Nashik City
Kumbhre, A., & Bharule, S. P. (2026) · doi:10.3390/eesp2026045018
Lu, W., Chen, M., & Liu, D. (2026) · Spatial Cognition and Computation · doi:10.1080/13875868.2026.2742558
Cascone, S., Vozzola, M., Semis, L. M., et al. (2026) · Rivista Tema · doi:10.36253/tema-17422
Moshaver, S., Ozarisoy, B., & Asl, S. B. (2026) · Architectural Science Review · doi:10.1080/00038628.2026.2746641
Reconstructing Palladian Symmetry: Quotient Trees and House-and-Wing Morphospace
Gökmen, S. (2026) · Nexus Network Journal · doi:10.1007/s00004-026-00920-9
Wang, X., & Gao, J. (2026) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings16204070
A Computational Method for Measuring Landmark Visibility Change Caused by Urban Infill Development
Ignatescu, M., & Nescsulescu, A. (2026) · Turkish Journal of Engineering · doi:10.31127/tuje.1968425
Nanahara, T., & Tanaka, H. (2026) · Environment and Planning B Urban Analytics and City Science · doi:10.1177/23998083261496137
Metadata
- Authors
- Turner, A., Doxa, M., O'Sullivan, D., & Penn, A.
- Affiliations
- VR Centre for the Built Environment
- Bartlett School of Graduate Studies
- Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis
- University College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Turner, Alasdair
- Doxa, Maria
- Penn, Alan
- ORCID
- Penn, Alan
- Venue
- Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2001-02
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 103-121
- ISSN
- 0265-8135 (ISSN-L)
- 1472-3417
- OpenAlex
- W2092291476
- Cited by
- 969
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 70 · 2025: 81 · 2024: 52 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 68 · 2020: 68 · 2019: 59 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 33 · 2014: 42 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 38
- FWCI
- 60.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- discovery.ucl.ac.uk
- Locations
- Environment and Planning B Planning and Design (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Urban Studies › Urban Design and Spatial Analysis
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Visual Arts and Performing Arts › Architecture and Art History Studies
- Keywords
- isovists, viewshed, visibility graph, architectural space, spatial configuration, graph analysis, accessibility (transport and spatial geography), visibility, wayfinding, spatial perception, movement, space use
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-21, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-21 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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