Biplane wing planform and flight performance of the feathered dinosaur Microraptor gui
Open accessAbstract
Microraptor gui , a four-winged dromaeosaur from the Early Cretaceous of China, provides strong evidence for an arboreal-gliding origin of avian flight. It possessed asymmetric flight feathers not only on the manus but also on the pes. A previously published reconstruction shows that the hindwing of Microraptor supported by a laterally extended leg would have formed a second pair of wings in tetrapteryx fashion. However, this wing design conflicts with known theropod limb joints that entail a parasagittal posture of the hindlimb. Here, we offer an alternative planform of the hindwing of Microraptor that is concordant with its feather orientation for producing lift and normal theropod hindlimb posture. In this reconstruction, the wings of Microraptor could have resembled a staggered biplane configuration during flight, where the forewing formed the dorsal wing and the metatarsal wing formed the ventral one. The contour feathers on the tibia were positioned posteriorly, oriented in a vertical plane for streamlining that would reduce the drag considerably. Leg feathers are present in many fossil dromaeosaurs, early birds, and living raptors, and they play an important role in flight during catching and carrying prey. A computer simulation of the flight performance of Microraptor suggests that its biplane wings were adapted for undulatory “phugoid” gliding between trees, where the horizontal feathered tail offered additional lift and stability and controlled pitch. Like the Wright 1903 Flyer, Microraptor , a gliding relative of early birds, took to the air with two sets of wings.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Microraptor was capable of generating sufficient speed and flight forces for a ground-based takeoff, within the range of values estimated for an arboreal launch.
“In all cases, we found that Microraptor was capable of generating sufficient speed and flight forces for a ground-based takeoff and were within the range of values estimated for an arboreal launch [19, 20, 22].”
From Potential for Powered Flight Neared by Most Close Avialan Relatives, but Few Crossed Its Thresholds (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
The Biplane Wing Configuration section explicitly says Microraptor was not capable of ground or running takeoff because it lacked the wing-elevating pulley and running would damage its metatarsal wings. The paper models takeoff from a perch instead. Its support for an arboreal launch does not support the claimed ground-based takeoff. (LLM, conf=0.93)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMass estimates for Microraptor and other critical taxa from the femoral length equation are similar to estimates from femoral circumference and 3-D computer and displacement methods.
“As Microraptor is critical for our analysis we compared our mass value to one generated from an estimate of femoral circumference using the empirical equation of Campione et al. [128] as well as comparisons to mass estimates generated through 3-D computer and displacement methods [19, 22, 76]. All of these produce similar estimates to the one obtained using Christiansen & Farin ˜ a [127] (see”
From Potential for Powered Flight Neared by Most Close Avialan Relatives, but Few Crossed Its Thresholds (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
The Methodology section (page unavailable) estimates Microraptor’s mass at 0.95 kg, so the paper supplies a mass estimate relevant to the comparison. It does not compare that estimate with a femoral-length equation, femoral-circumference estimates, or displacement methods, and it describes its mass-estimation method as multivariate analysis rather than a 3-D computer method. (LLM, conf=0.79)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredUsing heaviest mass estimate 1.59 kg for Microraptor gui and lowest wing area estimate, wing loading is 1.69 gcm−2, below 2.5 gcm−2 maximum and similar to adult chukar partridges and turkeys.
“For example, even using the heaviest mass estimate per Allen et al. [76] of 1.59 kg for Microraptor gui and the lowest wing area estimate of Chatterjee and Templin [19], on the basis of the incomplete estimate of feather length, we still obtain wing loading values of 1.69 gcm 2 , well below the 2.5 gcm 2 maximum and similar to values seen in adult chukar partridges [85] and turkeys [94].”
From Potential for Powered Flight Neared by Most Close Avialan Relatives, but Few Crossed Its Thresholds (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
The origin and evolution of birds
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-3307 · Cited by 617 · see citing works
An exceptionally well-preserved theropod dinosaur from the Yixian Formation of China
Chen, P., Dong, Z.-M., & Zhen, S. (1998) · Nature · doi:10.1038/34356 · Cited by 606 · see citing works
Two feathered dinosaurs from northeastern China
Qiang, J., Currie, P. J., Norell, M. A., & Shu-An, J. (1998) · Nature · doi:10.1038/31635 · Cited by 580 · see citing works
The smallest known non-avian theropod dinosaur
Xu, X., Zhou, Z., & Wang, X. (2000) · Nature · doi:10.1038/35047056 · Cited by 539 · see citing works
Four-winged dinosaurs from China
Xu, X., Zhou, Z., Wang, X., Kuang, X., Zhang, F., & Du, X. (2003) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature01342 · Cited by 485 · see citing works
A dromaeosaurid dinosaur with a filamentous integument from the Yixian Formation of China
Xu, X., Wang, X.-L., & Wu, X.-C. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/45769 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Sibley, D. A. (2000) · Cited by 279 · see citing works
A Cold Look At The Warm-blooded Dinosaurs
Thomas, R. D. K., & Olson, E. C. (1980) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 218 · see citing works
A beaked bird from the Jurassic of China
Hou, L., Zhou, Z., Martin, L. D., & Feduccia, A. (1995) · Nature · doi:10.1038/377616a0 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
A new maniraptoran dinosaur from China with long feathers on the metatarsus
Xu, X., & Zhang, F. (2005) · Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s00114-004-0604-y · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Feathered dragons: studies on the transition from dinosaurs to birds
(2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.42-1568 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
A juvenile coelurosaurian theropod from China indicates arboreal habits
Zhang, F., Zhou, Z., Xu, X., & Wang, X. (2002) · Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s00114-002-0353-8 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Feathers of <i>Archaeopteryx</i> : Asymmetric Vanes Indicate Aerodynamic Function
Feduccia, A., & Tordoff, H. B. (1979) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.203.4384.1021 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
The evolution of the avian shoulder joint
Jenkins, F. A. (1993) · American Journal of Science · doi:10.2475/ajs.293.a.253 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Cursoriality in bipedal archosaurs
Jones, T. D., Farlow, J. O., Ruben, J. A., Henderson, D. M., & Hillenius, W. J. (2000) · Nature · doi:10.1038/35021041 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
The spectrum of animal flight: insects to pterosaurs
Templin, R. J. (2000) · Progress in Aerospace Sciences · doi:10.1016/s0376-0421(00)00007-5 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Self-citationCalford, M. B., Chino, Y. M., Das, A., Eysel, U. T., Gilbert, C. D., Heinen, S. J., Kaas, J. H., & Ullman, S. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature04359 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Structure and function of hindlimb feathers in <i>Archaeopteryx lithographica</i>
Longrich, N. (2006) · Paleobiology · doi:10.1666/04014.1 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Leg feathers in an Early Cretaceous bird
Zhang, F., & Zhou, Z. (2004) · Nature · doi:10.1038/431925a · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Chatterjee, S., & Templin, R. J. (2003) · Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s00114-002-0385-0 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationCould ‘four-winged’ dinosaurs fly?
Padian, K., & Dial, K. P. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature04354 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Finding the forest despite the Trees.
Liu, C. (2005) · Natural history · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Chatterjee S (1997) The Rise of Birds (Johns Hopkins Univ Press, Baltimore).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Reconstruction of <i>Microraptor</i> and the Evolution of Iridescent Plumage
Li, Q., Gao, K.-Q., Meng, Q., Clarke, J. A., Shawkey, M. D., D’Alba, L., Pei, R., Ellison, M., Norell, M. A., & Vinther, J. (2012) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1213780 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Linking the evolution of body shape and locomotor biomechanics in bird-line archosaurs
Allen, V., Bates, K. T., Li, Z., & Hutchinson, J. R. (2013) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature12059 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Potential for Powered Flight Neared by Most Close Avialan Relatives, but Few Crossed Its Thresholds
Pei, R., Pittman, M., Goloboff, P. A., Dececchi, T. A., Habib, M. B., Kaye, T. G., Larsson, H. C. E., Norell, M. A., Brusatte, S. L., & Xu, X. (2020) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.06.105 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“[128] as well as comparisons to mass estimates generated through 3-D computer and displacement methods [19, 22, 76].”
InfluentialHind Wings in Basal Birds and the Evolution of Leg Feathers
Zheng, X., Zhou, Z., Wang, X., Zhang, F., Zhang, X., Wang, Y., Wei, G., Wang, S., & Xu, X. (2013) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1228753 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
A new Jurassic scansoriopterygid and the loss of membranous wings in theropod dinosaurs
Wang, M., O’Connor, J. K., Xu, X., & Zhou, Z. (2019) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1137-z · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Alexander, D. E., Gong, E., Martin, L. D., Burnham, D. A., & Falk, A. R. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0911852107 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Aerodynamic performance of the feathered dinosaur Microraptor and the evolution of feathered flight
Dyke, G., de Kat, R., Palmer, C., van der Kindere, J., Naish, D., & Ganapathisubramani, B. (2013) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms3489 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
The wings before the bird: an evaluation of flapping-based locomotory hypotheses in bird antecedents
Dececchi, T. A., Larsson, H. C. E., & Habib, M. B. (2016) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.2159 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
How animals glide: from trajectory to morphology
Socha, J. J., Jafari, F., Munk, Y., & Byrnes, G. (2015) · Canadian Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1139/cjz-2014-0013 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Heers, A. M., Baier, D. B., Jackson, B. E., & Dial, K. P. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153446 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Dececchi, T. A., & Larsson, H. C. E. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022292 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“The presence of long feathers on the tibia and tarsus of nonavian paravians has been cited as evidence for a four winged gliding origin of flight and an arboreal stage in avian evolution [13,16].”
Background
- Authors
- Chatterjee, S., & Templin, R. J.
- Affiliations
- Texas Tech University (US)
- 2212 Aster Street, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1H 6R6
- ORCID
- Chatterjee, Sankar
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2007-01-30
- Volume
- 104
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1576-1580
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC1780066
- OpenAlex
- W2146331277
- Cited by
- 88
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 4.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ThinkTech (Texas Tech University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Texas Tech University
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Evolutionary Biology
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Biomimetic flight and propulsion mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Fossil Insects in Amber
- Keywords
- feathered dinosaurs, dromaeosaurids, hind wing, Lower Cretaceous
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Biomechanical Phenomena, Biological Evolution, Feathers, Flight, Animal, Fossils, Models, Biological, Paleontology, Phylogeny, Reptiles, Wings, Animal, Dinosaurs
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
