The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 59 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 9 of the 25 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD
Open accessAbstract
Research and clinical investigations in psychiatry largely rely on the de facto assumption that the diagnostic categories identified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) represent homogeneous syndromes. However, the mechanistic heterogeneity that potentially underlies the existing classification scheme might limit discovery of etiology for most developmental psychiatric disorders. Another, perhaps less palpable, reality may also be interfering with progress-heterogeneity in typically developing populations. In this report we attempt to clarify neuropsychological heterogeneity in a large dataset of typically developing youth and youth with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), using graph theory and community detection. We sought to determine whether data-driven neuropsychological subtypes could be discerned in children with and without the disorder. Because individual classification is the sine qua non for eventual clinical translation, we also apply support vector machine-based multivariate pattern analysis to identify how well ADHD status in individual children can be identified as defined by the community detection delineated subtypes. The analysis yielded several unique, but similar subtypes across both populations. Just as importantly, comparing typically developing children with ADHD children within each of these distinct subgroups increased diagnostic accuracy. Two important principles were identified that have the potential to advance our understanding of typical development and developmental neuropsychiatric disorders. The first tenet suggests that typically developing children can be classified into distinct neuropsychological subgroups with high precision. The second tenet proposes that some of the heterogeneity in individuals with ADHD might be "nested" in this normal variation.
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32 Own result · 12 Own interpretation · 6 No full text of the sources · 4 Partly supported · 4 Own method · 3 Supported · 2 Not checked yet · 1 Supported so far · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
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In the paper
“Independently applying the community detection algorithm to the ADHD cohort shows similar findings to those in A.”
- Also stated in: § Atypical Neuropsychological Patterns in ADHD Are Specific to Subgroup · plain
“independently applying Newman's community detection algorithm (29) on the ADHD cohort replicated this finding, showing similar subgroup patterns (Fig. 4).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Trait Variation in the Typically Developing Population Informs
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [29] 29. Newman ME (2006) Modularity and community structure in networks. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:8577-8582. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The method of optimal modularity (p. 2) describes the paper’s community-detection algorithm, supporting the methodological part of the sentence. The paper does not report an ADHD cohort or a comparison with typically developing subgroups, so it does not support the claimed replication of findings. (LLM, conf=0.84)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Atypical Neuropsychological Patterns in ADHD Are Specific to Subgroup · plain
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In the paper
“Although common practice would expect this investigation to yield one unitary group, the analysis instead yielded four unique communities or subgroups (Fig. 4).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Importantly, despite these highly reliable differences, the SVM classifier was unable to make strong distinctions in individual cases with regard to ADHD status (65% accuracy, 86.3% sensitivity, and 38.5% specificity).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Results
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In the paper
“Independently testing the community structure in this sample revealed similar findings, albeit via six groups (Fig. 4).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Results
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In the paper
“The third group (18% of sample) had relatively inaccurate temporal information processing (subgroup 3).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Results
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In the paper
“The second group (20% of sample) had reduced working memory, memory span, inhibition, and output speed (subgroup 2).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Results
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In the paper
“One group (43% of sample) appeared to have a pattern consistent with more response variability relative to their peers (subgroup 1).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Results
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In the paper
“Fit was satisfactory and comparable for the best-fitting five-, six-, and seven-factor models as follows: five-factor χ 2 (63) = 103.4,CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.036; six-factor χ 2 (58) = 95.1,CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.035; and seven-factor χ 2 (52) = 89.9,CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.038.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The last group (18% of sample) had relatively weak signal detection, suggesting suboptimal or altered arousal (subgroup 4).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Results
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results for the feature reduction for the neuropsychological measures showed that a one-factor model fit inadequately [χ 2 (70) = 386.2,CFI = 0.87, TLI = 0.84, RMSEA = 0.09], justifying our effort to create a multiconstruct model.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
- Probably not a substantial claim. 13
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“whereas the comparison of the full ADHD and TDC cohort replicated previous findings in this regard (41), the comparisons based on community structure yielded only a subset of profiles with working memory and temporal information processing deficits.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Atypical Neuropsychological Patterns in ADHD Are Specific to Subgroup
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [41] 41. Martinussen R, Hayden J, Hogg-Johnson S, Tannock R (2005) A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disor- der. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 44:377-384. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Martinussen et al. (2005) is cited for the previous finding of working-memory impairment in children with ADHD, not for the citing study’s community-based comparisons. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Fronto-parietal white matter microstructure associated with working memory performance in children with ADHD” explicitly cites Martinussen et al. among meta-analyses finding poorer working memory in ADHD than in controls (score 0.632). The cited paper has no available paper-scoped full-text snippets, so this supports the historical comparison but cannot independently verify the citing study’s subset-of-profiles result. (LLM, conf=0.77)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
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In the paper
“Rapid and sizeable changes in environmental demands across time may have served as the driving force toward multiple "peaks" with regard to neurocognitive strategies or profiles in typical populations (21,36), as found here.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Trait Variation in the Typically Developing Population Informs
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [21] 21. Goldman D, Oroszi G, Ducci F (2005) The genetics of addictions: Uncovering the genes. Nat Rev Genet 6:521-532. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Genes and neurobiologies and ANTAGONISTS passages describe a proposed balance between cognitive performance and stress resilience, with selection maintaining two COMT alleles in human populations. They do not say that rapid, sizeable changes in environmental demands produced multiple peaks in neurocognitive profiles in typical populations. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [36] 36. Nettle D (2006) The evolution of personality variation in humans and other animals. Am Psychol 61:622-631. source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“With respect to our findings it should be noted that at times heritable diversity might form along a continuous dimension (i.e., unimodal distribution), whereas at others times it may form as multiple discrete strategies (i.e., multimodal distributions) (21,(36)(37)(38).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Trait Variation in the Typically Developing Population Informs
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [21] 21. Goldman D, Oroszi G, Ducci F (2005) The genetics of addictions: Uncovering the genes. Nat Rev Genet 6:521-532. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The RESILIENCY section discusses two possible genetic architectures for addiction vulnerability: many variants acting together and different individual variants sufficing in different people. It does not establish that heritable diversity forms a continuous, unimodal dimension or multiple discrete, multimodal strategies; those distributional claims go beyond the passage. (LLM, conf=0.72)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [36] 36. Nettle D (2006) The evolution of personality variation in humans and other animals. Am Psychol 61:622-631. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] 37. Mier D, Kirsch P, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2010) Neural substrates of pleiotropic action of genetic variation in COMT: A meta-analysis. Mol Psychiatry 15:918-927. source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Similar arguments have been made with regard to COMT and working memory, with an evolutionary trade-off between efficient working memory updating (val) and robust working memory maintenance (met) (22).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Trait Variation in the Typically Developing Population Informs
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [22] 22. Braver TS, Cole MW, Yarkoni T (2010) Vive les differences! Individual variation in neural mechanisms of executive control. Curr Opin Neurobiol 20:242-250. source
In “The origins of individual differences variation: Genetics, environment, and neural mechanisms,” the paper explicitly describes a COMT val158met trade-off between efficient working-memory updating (val) and robust maintenance (met). It proposes that differing environmental contexts may have favored one variant or the other, matching the claim’s evolutionary framing. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In this proposal each allele is maintained in the population because each provides an environment-specific selective advantage-one for cognitive efficiency under typical conditions and the other for emotional resilience under stressful circumstances (21,37).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Trait Variation in the Typically Developing Population Informs
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [21] 21. Goldman D, Oroszi G, Ducci F (2005) The genetics of addictions: Uncovering the genes. Nat Rev Genet 6:521-532. source
The Genes and neurobiologies passage identifies a trade-off between stress resilience (Val158) and cognitive function (Met158). The continuation labeled ANTAGONISTS says the warrior/worrier model invokes balancing selection to conserve both alleles, with Val158 improving stress resilience but modestly reducing executive cognitive performance under most conditions. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] 37. Mier D, Kirsch P, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2010) Neural substrates of pleiotropic action of genetic variation in COMT: A meta-analysis. Mol Psychiatry 15:918-927. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Although consensus remains elusive on defining specific personality or cognitive "types" (18,19), substantial evidence has accrued that individual differences in successful adaptive psychological styles are central to human development, functioning, social cohesion, and health outcomes (20)(21)(22)(23).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > psychiatric disorders | research domain criteria | cognition | modularity |
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [20] 20. Buss DM (1991) Evolutionary personality psychology. Annu Rev Psychol 42:459-491. source
- Partly supportedcites [21] 21. Goldman D, Oroszi G, Ducci F (2005) The genetics of addictions: Uncovering the genes. Nat Rev Genet 6:521-532. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The “Progress through intermediate phenotypes” section says behavioural control supports long-term behaviour and that deficits in children are linked to problems including substance use. This supports a narrower point about development and addiction risk, but the paper does not establish that adaptive psychological styles broadly determine human functioning, social cohesion, and health outcomes. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Partly supportedcites [22] 22. Braver TS, Cole MW, Yarkoni T (2010) Vive les differences! Individual variation in neural mechanisms of executive control. Curr Opin Neurobiol 20:242-250. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract links individual differences in personality, emotion processing, and cognitive ability to executive control, and the Emotion regulation section discusses differences in regulation success and depression. These passages support a narrower claim about cognitive and emotional functioning, but do not establish that adaptive psychological styles are central to human development, social cohesion, or health outcomes broadly. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
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Probably not a substantial claim.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“some have recently argued that the single-nucleotide polymorphism (val158met) of the catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene, which codes for an enzyme that degrades dopamine in prefrontal cortex, may relate to evolutionary trade-offs between efficient executive functioning (met) and improved emotional regulation (val) (21,”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Trait Variation in the Typically Developing Population Informs
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [21] 21. Goldman D, Oroszi G, Ducci F (2005) The genetics of addictions: Uncovering the genes. Nat Rev Genet 6:521-532. source
The Genes and neurobiologies passage links Val158 to stress resiliency and Met158 to cognitive function. The continuation under ANTAGONISTS describes the warrior/worrier model as balancing selection that maintains both alleles, with Val158 associated with better stress resiliency but modestly diminished executive performance. (LLM, conf=0.94)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These groups show minimal differences in intelligence quotient (IQ), age, or sex ratios (with one exception, see Tables S4 and S5).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Results
plainn = 4- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Atypical Neuropsychological Measures Are Unique on the Basis of Profile and ADHD Classification Improves Within Profiles.”
- Also stated in: § Atypical Neuropsychological Measures Are Unique on the Basis of Profile and ADHD Classification Improves Within Profiles. · plain
“Whereas the ANOVA in six of the seven factors showed a main effect of diagnosis, the post hoc comparisons showed that not all subgroups had the same atypical neuropsychological scores.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Atypical Neuropsychological Measures Are Unique on the Basis of Profile and ADHD Classification Improves Within Profiles.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Atypical Neuropsychological Measures Are Unique on the Basis of Profile and ADHD Classification Improves Within Profiles. · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Group 4A had the maximal improvement at 84.1% classification of ADHD vs. TCD youth (83.3% sensitivity and 84.6% specificity).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Atypical Neuropsychological Measures Are Unique on the Basis of Profile and ADHD Classification Improves Within Profiles.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The remaining groups were as follows: group 1, 68% total, 49.2% sensitivity, 80.4% specificity; group 2A, 68.5%, 83.7%, 51.2%; group 2B, 64.7%, 80.4%, 44.2%; group 3, 73.6%, 88.73%, 46.2%; group 4A, 84.1%, 83.3%, 84.6%; and group 4B, 61.9%, 37%, 76.9%.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Atypical Neuropsychological Measures Are Unique on the Basis of Profile and ADHD Classification Improves Within Profiles.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This procedure left us with four groups, which we label as follows: a variability group (subgroup 1), a low executive group (subgroup 2), a low temporal information processing group (subgroup 3), and a low arousal group (subgroup 4).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Atypical Neuropsychological Patterns in ADHD Are Specific to Subgroup
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Among ADHD subgroups, atypical inhibitory control, speed, and working memory were each found in three groups.Atypical arousal and span were each identified in two groups.Atypical response variability and temporal information priming were each found in four groups.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Atypical Neuropsychological Measures Are Unique on the Basis of Profile and ADHD Classification Improves Within Profiles.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Classification generally was quite respectable across the groups with 78% accuracy for the TDC population (subgroup 1, 93%; subgroup 2, 71%; subgroup 3, 71%; subgroup 4, 81.25%) and 77% accuracy for the ADHD population (subgroup 1, 78%; subgroup 2A, 75%; subgroup 2B, 66.25%; subgroup 3, 77%; subgroup 4A, 88%; note that subgroup 4B was unable to be examined as it was not reproduced in large enough”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > SVM-Based MVPA Highlights the Robustness of the Community
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The difference between the two appears to be split in subgroup 2 and subgroup 4.”
- Also stated in: § Atypical Neuropsychological Patterns in ADHD Are Specific to Subgroup · plain
“The main deviation from the finding in TDC was the revelation of an additional low arousal group (subgroup 4B) and an additional low executive group (subgroup 2B).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Trait Variation in the Typically Developing Population Informs
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Atypical Neuropsychological Patterns in ADHD Are Specific to Subgroup · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This analysis shows that despite traditional assumptions that nonclinical control populations are uniform entities, our results fit better with the alternative supposition that there are unique neuropsychological profiles even in typically developing, well-adjusted samples.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It may be that identifying a mechanism associated with a mental disorder requires comparing individuals to well-adjusted persons with the same cognitive style or profile.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > psychiatric disorders | research domain criteria | cognition | modularity |
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The modeling literature related to adaptive complex social systems also provides significant evidence that suggests psychological heterogeneity is an important means by which to improve the robustness of the collective when faced with shifting environmental demands (35).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Trait Variation in the Typically Developing Population Informs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [35] 35. Miller JH, Page SE (2007) Complex Adaptive Systems: An Introduction to Computa- tional Models of Social Life (Princeton Univ Press, Princeton).
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the approach used here is not limited to the study of ADHD, but could be used to inform heterogeneity and perhaps etiology in other developmental or adult neuropsychiatric disorders, and thus has broad appeal.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Current Approach Can Be Extended Across Multiple Modalities for
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“poor response inhibition has been suggested to be a critical component of ADHD (39) and has been well established at the group level (40).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Atypical Neuropsychological Patterns in ADHD Are Specific to Subgroup
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] 39. Barkley RA (1997) Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol Bull 121:65-94. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [40] 40. Willcutt EG, et al. (2010) Etiology and neuropsychology of comorbidity between RD and ADHD: The case for multiple-deficit models. Cortex 46(10):1345-1361. source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, whereas numerous unique neuropsychological measures have been proposed as related to ADHD, perhaps each of them applies to only a subset of those subjects with the disorder.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > psychiatric disorders | research domain criteria | cognition | modularity |
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the robustness of the identified communities was tested in several ways (e.g., Figs.S2 and S3), indicating that the group assignments identified here are highly deviant from random.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Individual Classification Based on Neuropsychological Measures
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It might be reasoned that the discrete subgroups observed here (Figs. 3 and 4) are a small representation of similar forms of neuropsychological diversity.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Trait Variation in the Typically Developing Population Informs
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“It is a key feature in the stability of complex social systems and thus has likely been an important attribute of our evolving species.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Trait Variation in the Typically Developing Population Informs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [35] 35. Miller JH, Page SE (2007) Complex Adaptive Systems: An Introduction to Computa- tional Models of Social Life (Princeton Univ Press, Princeton).
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The mechanistic heterogeneity that potentially underlies the existing classification scheme might be limiting our ability to clarify etiology and identify novel therapeutics for several psychiatric illnesses (3).”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > psychiatric disorders | research domain criteria | cognition | modularity |
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [3] 3. Agid Y, et al. (2007) How can drug discovery for psychiatric disorders be improved? Nat Rev Drug Discov 6:189-201. source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper relies on this without support.
The 498 children in the dataset are representative of typically developing youth and youth with ADHD.
“For the current investigation we apply community detection to a well-characterized dataset of 498 children who include both typically developing control youth (TDC) (n = 213) and youth with ADHD (n = 285) (Table S1).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The 20 neuropsychological measures used are valid indicators of the cognitive functions they are intended to assess.
“From these youth, some 20 neuropsychological measures were obtained that were intended to cover a wide domain of cognitive functions variously theorized to be involved in ADHD (Table S2 and Fig. 2).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The typically developing and ADHD cohorts studied are representative of their respective populations, so that the observed subgroups reflect the broader population's neuropsychological variation.
“Children who completed a full research psychiatric evaluation aged 6-17 y participated in this study (TDC, n = 213; ADHD, n = 285) (SI Text).”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Working memory impairments are reported in 30% to 37% (Coghill et al., 2014; Fair et al., 2012), and inhibitory control deficits are detected in 21%–46% of pediatric ADHD cases (Coghill et al., 2014; Nigg et al., 2005; Solanto et al., 2001; Sonuga-Barke et al., 2010).”
From Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD (2019) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“estimates for the proportion of pediatric ADHD cases who exhibit any form of executive dysfunction range from 21% to 60% across studies employing a wide range of tasks and impairment criteria (Biederman et al., 2004; Coghill et al., 2014; Fair, Bathula, Nikolas, & Nigg, 2012; Geurts, van der Oord, & Crone, 2006; Nigg et al., 2005; Solanto et al., 2001; Sonuga-Barke, Bitsalou, & Thompson, 2010).”
From Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD (2019) · cites this paper as Fair, Bathula, Nikolas, & Nigg, 2012
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Applying the construct specificity concerns raised by Sonuga-Barke et al. (2008) and Snyder et al. (2015) to evaluate the tests used to evaluate neuropsychological heterogeneity in ADHD indicates that, to our knowledge, 100% of the available literature either omitted tests of working memory or measured working memory using at least one test with poor construct specificity (Biederman et al., 2004;”
From Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD (2019) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Four cognitive ADHD subtypes were revealed in a study based on a community of children with or without ADHD 70 ; however, whether these subtypes predict treatment response or course remains unclear.”
From Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (2015) · cites this paper as [70]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The etiological heterogeneity in terms of the biological and environmental factors is likely reflected in variation in neural correlates (Nigg and Casey, 2005; Mackie et al., 2007; Fair et al., 2012; Costa Dias et al., 2013, 2015; Karalunas et al., 2014), and results in the diverse cognitive and behavioral profiles and developmental trajectories of the disorder (Halperin and Schulz, 2006; Rajendr”
From A Review of Heterogeneity in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (2019) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Indeed, community detection of performance measures in ADHD did not yield subgroups separated by inhibition and working memory problems (Fair et al., 2012), as observed here.”
From Data‐driven identification of subtypes of executive function across typical development, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorders (2020) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Working memory impairments are reported in 30% to 37% (Coghill et al., 2014; Fair et al., 2012)”
From Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD (2019) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Given that only a subset of children with ADHD meets criteria for an executive function deficit [16-23]”
From Prevalence and diagnostic validity of motivational impairments and deficits in visuospatial short-term memory and working memory in ADHD subtypes (2015) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“visuospatial WM deficits on group-level are probably carried by only a subset of children with ADHD [16].”
From Prevalence and diagnostic validity of motivational impairments and deficits in visuospatial short-term memory and working memory in ADHD subtypes (2015) · cites this paper as [16]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“recent findings suggest that ADHD is a neuropsychologically heterogeneous disorder that probably is not characterized by any single core dysfunction [16-19].”
From Prevalence and diagnostic validity of motivational impairments and deficits in visuospatial short-term memory and working memory in ADHD subtypes (2015) · cites this paper as [16]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, at the same time, these results support models and previous findings which suggest that ADHD is a neuropsychologically heterogeneous disorder that cannot be characterized by a single core dysfunction [16-22, 25].”
From Prevalence and diagnostic validity of motivational impairments and deficits in visuospatial short-term memory and working memory in ADHD subtypes (2015) · cites this paper as [16]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This suggests that the neuropsychological heterogeneity in ADHD may be a derivative of normal variation”
From Prevalence and diagnostic validity of motivational impairments and deficits in visuospatial short-term memory and working memory in ADHD subtypes (2015) · cites this paper as [16]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“supports recent evidence suggesting separable neuropsychological subtypes in ADHD [e.g., 16, 19, 23]”
From Prevalence and diagnostic validity of motivational impairments and deficits in visuospatial short-term memory and working memory in ADHD subtypes (2015) · cites this paper as [16]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Other domains impaired in ADHD include temporal information processing and timing 67 ; speech and language 68 ; memory span, processing speed and response time variability 69 ; arousal and activation 70 ; and motor control 71 .”
From Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (2015) · cites this paper as [70]
In the citing paper
“While effects were relatively consistent across formulations of ADHD here, ADHD is likely to be heterogeneous with regard to mediating cognitive mechanisms64,65 as well as with regard to comorbidity, severity, clinical course, temporal variation, environmental exposures, and probably genetic variation.”
From Working Memory and Vigilance as Multivariate Endophenotypes Related to Common Genetic Risk for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (2018) · cites this paper as [65]
In the citing paper
“Heterogeneity limits our ability to identify the underlying neurobiology of ADHD.”
From Characterizing heterogeneity in children with and without ADHD based on reward system connectivity (2015) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“however, even within the same subtype, variations in clinical presentation are remarkable, and variations in etiology and pathophysiology are expected (Fair et al., 2012, Karalunas et al., 2015, Nigg et al., 2005).”
From Characterizing heterogeneity in children with and without ADHD based on reward system connectivity (2015) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Findings from these studies suggest that identifying mechanistic subpopulations across ADHD and typically developing children may inform heterogeneity and the clinical course of a given child.”
From Characterizing heterogeneity in children with and without ADHD based on reward system connectivity (2015) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“The study found that both groups (children with ADHD and typically developing children) could be classified into unique, but similar neuropsychological profiles. Furthermore, children with ADHD from each profile showed atypical scores in very specific neuropsychological measures.”
From Characterizing heterogeneity in children with and without ADHD based on reward system connectivity (2015) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Three recent reports from our team have highlighted the use of community detection as a way to characterize heterogeneity in ADHD (Fair et al., 2012, Gates et al., 2014, Karalunas et al., 2015).”
From Characterizing heterogeneity in children with and without ADHD based on reward system connectivity (2015) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“For example, in a recent work, we showed that variation across several neuropsychological measures does not always shape across a continuous dimension (i.e. unimodal distribution), but rather some behavioral features form multiple discrete subgroups (i.e. multimodal distribution) (Fair et al., 2012).”
From Characterizing heterogeneity in children with and without ADHD based on reward system connectivity (2015) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“This particular finding is similar in theme to that of previous reports (Fair et al., 2012, Gates et al., 2014).”
From Characterizing heterogeneity in children with and without ADHD based on reward system connectivity (2015) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“These data highlight not only variation in ADHD, but in typically developing children as well (Fair et al., 2012, Gates et al., 2014).”
From Characterizing heterogeneity in children with and without ADHD based on reward system connectivity (2015) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Similar methods have been used to assess behavioral and temperamental variation in ADHD and typically developing populations (Fair et al., 2012, Gates et al., 2014, Karalunas et al., 2015).”
From Characterizing heterogeneity in children with and without ADHD based on reward system connectivity (2015) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“It is possible, if not likely [2], [3], that as with insomnia multiple mechanisms may lead to similar symptom clusters for a given mental disorder as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (currently, DSM-5) or International Classification of Diseases (ICD).”
From Organizing Heterogeneous Samples Using Community Detection of GIMME-Derived Resting State Functional Networks (2014) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Most evidence for this phenomenon has been from neuropsychological data and behavior or symptom report (e.g., [2]), with recent evidence suggesting heterogeneity in the biological components as well [48].”
From Organizing Heterogeneous Samples Using Community Detection of GIMME-Derived Resting State Functional Networks (2014) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Prior work in fMRI using this modularity algorithm required that the researcher set an arbitrary threshold, or cutoff point, for what constitutes similarity between any two given individuals. Researchers would then arrive at thresholds by looking for consistency in community detection results at multiple thresholds (e.g., [2], [21], [22]).”
From Organizing Heterogeneous Samples Using Community Detection of GIMME-Derived Resting State Functional Networks (2014) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Data in the ADHD literature examining functional differences in the diagnostic subtypes (i.e. Combined type, and Inattentive type) lend support for this particular finding [2].”
From Organizing Heterogeneous Samples Using Community Detection of GIMME-Derived Resting State Functional Networks (2014) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“This further supports the notion that many mechanisms exist by which children may meet criteria for ADHD [2].”
From Organizing Heterogeneous Samples Using Community Detection of GIMME-Derived Resting State Functional Networks (2014) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“We identified seven functional domains implicated in ADHD (see Figure 1] that were described in the majority of several recent cognitive batteries [5,12,16,17]”
From Linking ADHD to the Neural Circuitry of Attention (2017) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“However, evidence suggests that most children with ADHD show deficits on multiple EFs [24]”
In the citing paper
“However, there is now considerable justification suggesting that multiple developmental and pathophysiological pathways inform ADHD symptomatology (Fair et al., 2012; Nigg et al., 2004; Sonuga-Barke et al., 2003).”
From Reward circuit connectivity relates to delay discounting in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (2013) · cites this paper as Fair et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Some reports have suggested that disease variation may be nested within normal variation (7).”
From Understanding heterogeneity in clinical cohorts using normative models: Beyond case-control studies (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
In the citing paper
“A key feature of our approach that differentiates it from other approaches to studying heterogeneity in clinical populations (7, 8) is the primary focus on mapping variation across the cohort.”
From Understanding heterogeneity in clinical cohorts using normative models: Beyond case-control studies (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Trait Variation in the Typically Developing Population Informs
“As illustrated by our single subject classification procedures, comparing typically developing children with ADHD children within each of these distinct subgroups increases diagnostic accuracy (i.e., ADHD vs. non-ADHD classification) on the basis of the neuropsychological measures.”
§ Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD > Atypical Neuropsychological Measures Are Unique on the Basis of Profile and ADHD Classification Improves Within Profiles.
“The remaining groups were as follows: group 1, 68% total, 49.2% sensitivity, 80.4% specificity; group 2A, 68.5%, 83.7%, 51.2%; group 2B, 64.7%, 80.4%, 44.2%; group 3, 73.6%, 88.73%, 46.2%; group 4A, 84.1%, 83.3%, 84.6%; and group 4B, 61.9%, 37%, 76.9%.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Fair, D. A., Bathula, D., Nikolas, M. A., & Nigg, J. T.
- Affiliations
- Oregon Health & Science University (US)
- Indian Institute of Technology Ropar (IN)
- University of Iowa (US)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2012-04-02
- Volume
- 109
- Issue
- 17
- Pages
- 6769-6774
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC3340031
- OpenAlex
- W2136530770
- Semantic Scholar
- adf36af1b47715f99d3f580f47ce0801a1338b8e
- Cited by
- 464
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 41 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 43 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 23.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (UL1TR000128)
- Oregon Clinical and Translational Research Institute
- National Institute of Mental Health (R00MH091238, R01MH096773, R01MH059105, R01MH086654)
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, typically developing children, developmental heterogeneity, community detection, graph theory, multivariate pattern analysis, support vector machine, diagnostic classification
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Cognition, Humans, Neuropsychological Tests, Cohort Studies
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-29, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-29 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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