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Media’s role in broadcasting acute stress following the Boston Marathon bombings
Open accessAbstract
Significance: Media coverage of collective traumas may trigger psychological distress in individuals outside the directly affected community. We examined whether repeated media exposure to the Boston Marathon bombings was associated with acute stress and compared the impact of direct exposure (being at/near the bombings) vs. media exposure (bombing-related television, radio, print, online, and social media coverage) on acute stress. We conducted an Internet-based survey 2–4 wk postbombings with a nationally representative sample and representative subsamples from Boston and New York (4,675 adults). Repeated bombing-related media exposure was associated with higher acute stress than was direct exposure. Media coverage following collective traumas can diffuse acute stress widely. This unique study compares the impact of direct vs. indirect media-based community trauma exposure on acute stress responses.
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“Relatedly, studies looking at media viewing of real trauma have shown that repeated and enduring viewing of scenes in media footage, for example of the Boston Marathon bombings, is associated with acute stress symptoms (Holman, Garfin, & Silver, 2014).”
From Intrusive memories of trauma: A target for research bridging cognitive science and its clinical application (2019) · cites this paper as Holman, Garfin, & Silver, 2014
In the citing paper
“A large body of previous research has convincingly established the association between media exposure and symptoms of posttraumatic stress related to various life-threatening stressors, such as war conflicts [9,10], terrorism and other acts of mass violence [11-15], natural disasters [16,17], and recently also the COVID-19 pandemic”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [13]
In the citing paper
“Recent research provided extensive evidence that indirect exposure is associated with stress symptoms and other psychopathologies comparable to those linked to direct exposure [13,16,23-27].”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [13]
In the citing paper
“Even ≥1 hours of daily television watching might have some negative consequences [10,13,167].”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [13]
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“Holman, Garfin, and Silver (2014) showed that repeated exposure to media reports on the Boston Marathon bombings in 2013 was associated with higher stress levels, and these stress levels even surpassed levels of individuals who were directly exposed to the terrorist attack (Holman, Garfin, &…”
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“…the higher exposure to all media was associated with higher levels of distress (same results were obtained in Trnka and Lorencova, 2020, but also in Holman et al., 2014), the only statistically significant relation was found between the amount of time that one spent in talking about coronavirus…”
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“were exposed to this information frequently (20), which could reinforce rumination and intrusive thoughts, and activate fear circuitry (54, 55), thus increasing PTSS.”
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Should the population limit its exposure to media coverage after a terrorist attack?
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“It has also been noted that media coverage in the aftermath of collective traumas can significantly propagate acute stress [51]; which agrees with our study regarding the effects on health, since people who were informed through social networks, television and radio, and those who spent more hours…”
ResultSupport Frameworks for the Use of Social Media by Emergency Management Organisations
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“For example, media companies may consider reducing the frequency of graphic disaster-related imagery broadcast, and warning viewers before traumatic images are televised.(9) It might also be beneficial if the public is informed about the possible association between prolonged exposure to disaster-related media and poo…”
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“Meanwhile, research has shown that high levels of exposure to media coverage of traumatic events is associated with more severe symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder [24,25].”
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“Further, steady consumption of emotionally charged media coverage can serve as a significant contributor to prolonged acute stress (Holman et al., 2014).”
BackgroundThompson, R. R., Jones, N. M., Garfin, D. R., Holman, E. A., & Silver, R. C. (2024) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/abm/kaad055 · Cited by 4
“This measure was based on similar assessments that have been used in previous research [45, 46].”
MethodSelf-citationAnxiety and panic buying during COVID-19 pandemic among the Mizo
Ralte, R., Tipandjan, A., Halliday, M. A. L., Zothanmawia, C., Modi, R., & Nithiya, D. R. (2021) · International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20210842 · Cited by 4
Psychological responses of Tunisian general population during COVID-19 pandemic
Bouattour, W., Turki, M., Ellouze, S., Messedi, N., Charfeddine, F., Halouani, N., Aribi, L., & Aloulou, J. (2021) · Pan African Medical Journal · doi:10.11604/pamj.2021.40.74.26379 · Cited by 4
“Response options were “less”, “sometimes” and “frequently” ii) How many hours per day (<1, 12, ≥ 3) they spent receiving information about COVID-19 from different media sources in the past one week [8].”
BackgroundEtterlattes opplevelser av medienes rapportering etter Utøya-terroren
Dyregrov, K., Kristensen, P., & Dyregrov, A. (2016) · Norsk medietidsskrift · doi:10.18261/issn.0805-9535-2016-03-03 · Cited by 4
Managing the Barrage: Secondary Trauma After Media Exposure to Violence
Pearson, G. S. (2024) · Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association · doi:10.1177/10783903231216706 · Cited by 4
“Acute mass violence events historically have resulted in post-traumatic stress, anxiety, and distress in viewers not directly involved with the violence (Ahern et al., 2004; Busso et al., 2014; Holman et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSmith, A., Graña, J., Alibudbud, R. C., Persaud, A., Torales, J., Buadze, A., & Liebrenz, M. (2026) · Neuropsychiatrie (Deisenhofen) · doi:10.1007/s40211-025-00567-x · Cited by 4
Adwan, M. N. A., Basha, S. E., Hegazy, A., Ahmed, A. M., & Fayez, H. (2026) · Journalism and Media · doi:10.3390/journalmedia7020106 · Cited by 4
“…Media Coverage of the Civil War in Sudan: The exposure scale was developed based on established measures in prior media effect and crisis communication research, and adapted to reflect the specific context of digital war coverage (Holman et al., 2014; Fayez et al., 2026a; Thompson et al., 2019).”
Stress and Cognitive Performance: Evidence from a South Korean Earthquake
Cho, H., & Kim, H. (2022) · Education Finance and Policy · doi:10.1162/edfp_a_00393 · Cited by 3
Cecchi-Dimeglio, P. (2023) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/12521.001.0001 · Cited by 3
Bilkay, H. İ., Özkök, Z., Şirin, B., & Gürhan, N. (2024) · International Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/00207411.2024.2328887 · Cited by 3
“Holman et al. (2014) stated that continuous exposure to traumatic images for more than 6 h may cause more harm to viewers than those directly affected.”
When Are Female Suicide Bombings More Likely? The Case of Boko Haram
Weeraratne, S. (2022) · Journal of Global Security Studies · doi:10.1093/jogss/ogac021 · Cited by 3
Shaikh, S. J., McGowan, A. L., & Lydon‐Staley, D. M. (2023) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2023.2247320 · Cited by 4
“Further, individuals who report watching the news more frequently than others are more likely to suffer from acute stress, anxiety, and depression (Holman et al., 2014; Potts & Sanchez, 1994).”
BackgroundJung, S. W., Jung, S., Lee, M. Y., Oh, K., Shin, Y. C., Shin, D., Kim, E. S., Kim, S. Y., Lee, K. J., Oh, N., et al. (2024) · Journal of Korean Medical Science · doi:10.3346/jkms.2024.39.e233 · Cited by 3
Githaiga, N. M., & Shifare, H. (2024) · American Journal of Industrial and Business Management · doi:10.4236/ajibm.2024.1412083 · Cited by 3
“Exposure to media coverage of upsetting events on a repeated basis has been proven to be detrimental (Holman et al., 2014).”
Impact of Media on Social Behavior of Individuals Living in Karachi
Imtiaz, F., Ellahi, N., & Zaidi, Y. H. (2015) · INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENDORSING HEALTH SCIENCE RESEARCH (IJEHSR) · doi:10.29052/ijehsr.v3.i2.2015.24-26 · Cited by 3
Trauern in Zeiten von Covid-19: Über den Moment hinaus gedacht
Müller, H., & Münch, U. (2020) · Spiritual Care · doi:10.1515/spircare-2020-0070 · Cited by 3
Ruben, M. A., Wormwood, J. B., Neumann, A. E., & Quigley, K. S. (2016) · Translational Issues in Psychological Science · doi:10.1037/tps0000095 · Cited by 3
“For example, Holman, Garfin, and Silver (2014) demonstrated that repeated media exposure to the Boston Marathon bombings was related to greater increases in acute stress responses than physical exposure to the bombings.”
Cardiovascular Events after the Sewol Ferry Disaster, South Korea
Kong, S. Y., Song, K. J., Shin, S. D., & Ro, Y. S. (2019) · Prehospital and Disaster Medicine · doi:10.1017/s1049023x19000207 · Cited by 3
Crime and Philanthropy: Prosocial and Antisocial Responses to Mass Shootings
Berrebi, C., & Yonah, H. (2020) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564886.2020.1787281 · Cited by 4
“Media coverage following collective traumas has been observed to have public health effects, particularly in terms of stress-related symptoms (Holman et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Holman, E. A., Garfin, D. R., & Silver, R. C.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- Departments of bPsychology and Social Behavior and
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2013-12-09
- Volume
- 111
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 93-98
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC3890785
- OpenAlex
- W2061777840
- Cited by
- 513
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 57 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 82 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 21.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
- Keywords
- Boston Marathon bombing, acute stress, media exposure, collective trauma, media influence, post-traumatic stress, September 11 attacks, Superstorm Sandy, television viewing
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Boston, Female, Health Status, Health Surveys, Humans, Male, Mass Media, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Radio, Stress, Psychological, Television, Internet, Terrorism, Bombs, Young Adult, Social Media
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