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Media’s role in broadcasting acute stress following the Boston Marathon bombings
Open accessAbstract
Significance: Media coverage of collective traumas may trigger psychological distress in individuals outside the directly affected community. We examined whether repeated media exposure to the Boston Marathon bombings was associated with acute stress and compared the impact of direct exposure (being at/near the bombings) vs. media exposure (bombing-related television, radio, print, online, and social media coverage) on acute stress. We conducted an Internet-based survey 2–4 wk postbombings with a nationally representative sample and representative subsamples from Boston and New York (4,675 adults). Repeated bombing-related media exposure was associated with higher acute stress than was direct exposure. Media coverage following collective traumas can diffuse acute stress widely. This unique study compares the impact of direct vs. indirect media-based community trauma exposure on acute stress responses.
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“Relatedly, studies looking at media viewing of real trauma have shown that repeated and enduring viewing of scenes in media footage, for example of the Boston Marathon bombings, is associated with acute stress symptoms (Holman, Garfin, & Silver, 2014).”
From Intrusive memories of trauma: A target for research bridging cognitive science and its clinical application (2019) · cites this paper as Holman, Garfin, & Silver, 2014
In the citing paper
“A large body of previous research has convincingly established the association between media exposure and symptoms of posttraumatic stress related to various life-threatening stressors, such as war conflicts [9,10], terrorism and other acts of mass violence [11-15], natural disasters [16,17], and recently also the COVID-19 pandemic”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [13]
In the citing paper
“Recent research provided extensive evidence that indirect exposure is associated with stress symptoms and other psychopathologies comparable to those linked to direct exposure [13,16,23-27].”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [13]
In the citing paper
“Even ≥1 hours of daily television watching might have some negative consequences [10,13,167].”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [13]
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BackgroundSelf-citationPsychological distress and prejudice following terror attacks in France
Goodwin, R. B., Kaniasty, K. Z., Sun, S., & Ben‐Ezra, M. (2017) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.03.001 · Cited by 40
Sweeting, J. A., Garfin, D. R., Holman, E. A., & Silver, R. C. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104048 · Cited by 45
Self-citationClark, I. A., Niehaus, K. E., Duff, E. P., Di Simplicio, M. C., Clifford, G. D., Smith, S. M., Mackay, C. E., Woolrich, M. W., & Holmes, E. A. (2014) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2014.07.010 · Cited by 37
“Additionally, PTSD symptoms have been reported following exposure to traumatic media footage (Holman et al., 2014; Silver et al., 2013).”
BackgroundPfefferbaum, B., Nitiéma, P., & Newman, E. (2019) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22391 · Cited by 41
Adherence to behavioral Covid-19 mitigation measures strongly predicts mortality
Margraf, J., Brailovskaia, J., & Schneider, S. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0249392 · Cited by 37
“, terrorist attacks, epidemics) [32, 33] and recent research on Covid-19 [34, 35] showed that the consumption of such information Fig 2.”
BackgroundMass Killings in the United States from 2006 to 2013: Social Contagion or Random Clusters?
Lankford, A., & Tomek, S. E. (2017) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12366 · Cited by 38
It matters what you see: Graphic media images of war and terror may amplify distress
Holman, E. A., Garfin, D. R., & Silver, R. C. (2024) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2318465121 · Cited by 47
“1) (12).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationFear of Zika: Information Seeking as Cause and Consequence
Dillard, J. P., Li, R., & Yang, C. Y. (2020) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2020.1794554 · Cited by 37
“And more of such information will likely yield higher levels of fright (Holman et al., 2014).”
BackgroundYang, X., Yip, B. H. K., Mak, A. D. P., Zhang, D., Lee, E. K. P., & Wong, S. Y. S. (2021) · JMIR Public Health and Surveillance · doi:10.2196/24623 · Cited by 42
“Our findings support the assertion that the heightened PTSD symptoms due to media exposure to collective crises may have profound repercussions for mental health [46].”
ResultFear-related behaviors in situations of mass threat
Espinola, M., Shultz, J., Espinel, Z., Althouse, B., Cooper, J., Baingana, F., Marcelin, L., Cela, T., Towers, S., Mazurik, L., et al. (2016) · Disaster Health · doi:10.1080/21665044.2016.1263141 · Cited by 29
“On a population basis, such exposure may lead some viewers to develop symptoms of acute PTSD. 21, 22 In tandem with the ongoing media fusillade, multiple surveys conducted by news and media organizations in the US documented widespread public fear compounded by strongly-held beliefs in personal and national susceptibi…”
BackgroundIntrusive memories of trauma in the laboratory: Methodological developments and future directions
Lau-Zhu, A., Holmes, E. A., & Porcheret, K. (2018) · Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1007/s40473-018-0141-1 · Cited by 36
China’s mental health support in response to COVID-19: progression, challenges and reflection
Ju, Y., Zhang, Y., Wang, X., Li, W., Ng, R., & Li, L. (2020) · Globalization and Health · doi:10.1186/s12992-020-00634-8 · Cited by 39
Zhang, Y., Li, R.-T., Sun, X., Peng, M., & Li, X. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.644899 · Cited by 40
“Given the close relationship between social media exposure and perceived distress (18, 19, 31), the present study assumed that psychological distress may play a mediation role between social media exposure and depression.”
BackgroundGiardini, F., & Vilone, D. (2021) · Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation · doi:10.18564/jasss.4479 · Cited by 35
“9 The impact of media on the population in the a ermath of disasters is well-known (Vasterman et al. 2005; Holman et al. 2014), therefore we also modelmedia influence, as neutral, alarming or reassuring depending on the way in which institutional information is reported.”
BackgroundAssociation between Media Use, Acute Stress Disorder and Psychological Distress
Goodwin, R., Palgi, Y., Lavenda, O., Hamama-Raz, Y., & Ben-Ezra, M. (2015) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000377706 · Cited by 33
Porcheret, K., der Kloet, D. V. H., Goodwin, G. M., Foster, F., Wulff, K., & Holmes, E. A. (2019) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-019-0403-z · Cited by 31
Cohen, A., Ekwueme, P. O., Sacotte, K. A., Bajwa, L., Gilpin, S., & Heard‐Garris, N. (2021) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.12.128 · Cited by 33
Brailovskaia, J., Miragall, M., Margraf, J., Herrero, R., & Baños, R. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01802-8 · Cited by 40
Understanding Homicide–Suicide
Knoll, J. L. (2016) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2016.07.009 · Cited by 32
Wong, S. M. Y., Hui, C. L. M., Wong, C. S. M., Suen, Y. N., Chan, S. K. W., Lee, E. H. M., Chang, W. C., & Chen, E. Y. H. (2020) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0706743720979920 · Cited by 32
Layug, A., Krishnamurthy, S., McKenzie, R., & Feng, B. (2022) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/38589 · Cited by 37
“Importantly, it echoes past findings regarding the impact of media usage related to trauma and disaster content on psychological well-being [95,130-136].”
BackgroundJames, E. L., Lau-Zhu, A., Tickle, H., Horsch, A., & Holmes, E. A. (2016) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2015.11.004 · Cited by 27
“…exposure on acute stress symptoms found that individuals who viewed extended media footage of the Boston Bombings (approximately 6 h), showed increased acute stress symptoms, compared to individuals who experienced actual, ‘ real life ’ exposure to the same event (Holman, Gar fi n, & Silver, 2014).”
Fekih‐Romdhane, F., Helmy, M. S., Alhuwailah, A., Shuwiekh, H. A. M., Naser, A. Y., Maalej, E., Obeïd, S., Cheour, M., & Hallit, S. R. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-18996-8 · Cited by 31
“However, only a modest attention has been given to the association between acute stress reactions and contact with media following a number of collective traumas, such as the September 11 attack [19, 20], the Boston Marathon bombings [21], and the Iraq War [22].”
BackgroundNi, M. Y., Li, T. K., Pang, H., Chan, B. H. Y., Yuan, B. Y., Kawachi, I. I., Schooling, C. M., & Leung, G. M. (2016) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kww103 · Cited by 30
“Indirect exposures to terrorist attacks, such as viewing television coverage of the attacks, has been linked to psychological distress (7, 11).”
BackgroundPreterm birth and selection in utero among males following the November 2015 Paris attacks
Bruckner, T. A., Lebreton, E., Perrone, N., Mortensen, L. H., & Blondel, B. (2019) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyz089 · Cited by 31
Hwang, J., Borah, P., Shah, D., & Brauer, M. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182413198 · Cited by 28
“Specifically, television viewing in the context of terrorism was associated with posttraumatic stress (PTS; [43]), stress reactions [44], and negative emotional responses [17].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Holman, E. A., Garfin, D. R., & Silver, R. C.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- Departments of bPsychology and Social Behavior and
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2013-12-09
- Volume
- 111
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 93-98
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC3890785
- OpenAlex
- W2061777840
- Cited by
- 513
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 57 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 82 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 21.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
- Keywords
- Boston Marathon bombing, acute stress, media exposure, collective trauma, media influence, post-traumatic stress, September 11 attacks, Superstorm Sandy, television viewing
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Boston, Female, Health Status, Health Surveys, Humans, Male, Mass Media, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Radio, Stress, Psychological, Television, Internet, Terrorism, Bombs, Young Adult, Social Media
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