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Media’s role in broadcasting acute stress following the Boston Marathon bombings
Open accessAbstract
Significance: Media coverage of collective traumas may trigger psychological distress in individuals outside the directly affected community. We examined whether repeated media exposure to the Boston Marathon bombings was associated with acute stress and compared the impact of direct exposure (being at/near the bombings) vs. media exposure (bombing-related television, radio, print, online, and social media coverage) on acute stress. We conducted an Internet-based survey 2–4 wk postbombings with a nationally representative sample and representative subsamples from Boston and New York (4,675 adults). Repeated bombing-related media exposure was associated with higher acute stress than was direct exposure. Media coverage following collective traumas can diffuse acute stress widely. This unique study compares the impact of direct vs. indirect media-based community trauma exposure on acute stress responses.
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“Relatedly, studies looking at media viewing of real trauma have shown that repeated and enduring viewing of scenes in media footage, for example of the Boston Marathon bombings, is associated with acute stress symptoms (Holman, Garfin, & Silver, 2014).”
From Intrusive memories of trauma: A target for research bridging cognitive science and its clinical application (2019) · cites this paper as Holman, Garfin, & Silver, 2014
In the citing paper
“A large body of previous research has convincingly established the association between media exposure and symptoms of posttraumatic stress related to various life-threatening stressors, such as war conflicts [9,10], terrorism and other acts of mass violence [11-15], natural disasters [16,17], and recently also the COVID-19 pandemic”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [13]
In the citing paper
“Recent research provided extensive evidence that indirect exposure is associated with stress symptoms and other psychopathologies comparable to those linked to direct exposure [13,16,23-27].”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [13]
In the citing paper
“Even ≥1 hours of daily television watching might have some negative consequences [10,13,167].”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [13]
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Worst Life Events and Media Exposure to Terrorism in a Nationally Representative U.S. Sample
Thompson, R. R., Holman, E. A., & Silver, R. C. (2020) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22534 · Cited by 12
“Although mental health outcomes were not the focus of the current analyses, other researchers have found links be-tween indirect exposure to collective traumas through the media and both probable PTSD (Ahern et al., 2004) and acute stress symptomatology (Holman et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPsychological responses to U.S. statewide restrictions and COVID-19 exposures: A longitudinal study.
Thompson, R. R., Jones, N. M., Freeman, A. M., Holman, E. A., Garfin, D. R., & Silver, R. C. (2022) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0001233 · Cited by 12
Self-citationCastro, M., Dias, J. A., & Madeira, L. (2023) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053231201242 · Cited by 15
“Data also show that witnessing trauma-related stories via the media may prolong previous trauma and encourage ruminative thinking (Holman et al., 2014), which may lead the subject to dwell on prior negative events (Holman and Silver, 1998).”
InfluentialLost in the net? Broadband internet and youth mental health
Donati, D., Durante, R., Sobbrio, F., & Zejcirovic, D. (2025) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2025.103017 · Cited by 17
Brailovskaia, J., & Margraf, J. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2022.100317 · Cited by 15
Dyar, C., Crosby, S. T., Newcomb, M. E., Mustanski, B. S., & Kaysen, D. L. (2022) · Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity · doi:10.1037/sgd0000585 · Cited by 15
Fullerton, C. S., Mash, H. B. H., Morganstein, J. C., & Ursano, R. J. (2018) · Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness · doi:10.1017/dmp.2018.121 · Cited by 13
“Those who viewed trauma-related television coverage of terrorist events, such as the 9/11 attacks, the bombings in Oklahoma City, and the Boston Marathon bombing, exhibited more acute stress symptoms and higher rates of PTSD, which persisted for up to 1 year.(9,14,16-25)”
BackgroundPuente, S., Marín, H., Alvarez, P. P., Flores, P. M., & Grassau, D. (2019) · Disasters · doi:10.1111/disa.12377 · Cited by 17
Media Exposure and Substance Use Increase during COVID-19
Amram, O., Borah, P., Kubsad, D., & McPherson, S. M. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18126318 · Cited by 11
Examination of Individual and Collective Trauma After the Kahramanmaraş Earthquake
Kılıç, A. K., Bademli, K., & Kayakuş, M. (2025) · Clinical Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10615-025-00993-y · Cited by 13
Miyashita, J., Takeshima, T., Maehara, K., Hamaguchi, S., & Fukuhara, S. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-28663-4 · Cited by 11
The relationship between REM sleep prior to analog trauma and intrusive memories
Alkalame, L., Ogden, J., Clark, J. W., Porcheret, K., Risbrough, V. B., & Drummond, S. P. A. (2024) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsae203 · Cited by 12
“Intrusive memories can arise not only through direct experience of a traumatic event, but also through indirect methods such as viewing negative visual stimuli in a work-related setting [47].”
Garfin, D. R., Thompson, R. R., & Wong‐Parodi, G. (2022) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.14032 · Cited by 12
Self-citationHoffman, A. M., & Shelby, W. (2017) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1065912917709354 · Cited by 11
Social and Contextual Influences on Mental Health Following an Episode of Mass Violence
Felix, E. D., Moore, S. A., Meskunas, H. M., & Terzieva, A. (2017) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260517742915 · Cited by 11
“Research following terror events that examined time spent watching news coverage also found a relation between greater media exposure and symptoms of posttraumatic or acute stress symptoms (Ahern, Galea, Resnick, & Vlahov, 2004; Busso, McLaughlin, & Sheridan, 2014; Holman et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSupporting Children After School Shootings
Schonfeld, D. J., & Demaria, T. P. (2020) · Pediatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2019.12.006 · Cited by 11
Mental health symptoms following the January 6th attack on the United States Capitol
Das, A., Morey, B. N., & Bruckner, T. A. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116015 · Cited by 10
Mesquiti, S., Seraj, S., Weyland, A., Ashokkumar, A., Boyd, R. L., Mihalcea, R. F., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-89165-z · Cited by 11
Threats to security and ischaemic heart disease deaths: the case of homicides in Mexico
Lee, E. H., & Bruckner, T. A. (2016) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyw110 · Cited by 11
“Outside of Mexico, several reports find psychological and somatic sequelae after exposure to media coverage of terrorist attacks and other traumatic events (37,38).”
BackgroundYumitro, G., Febriani, R., Roziqin, A., & Indraningtyas, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Communication · doi:10.3389/fcomm.2023.1140461 · Cited by 10
“In 2013 and 2014, these publications subsequently increased with 15 each, regarding anti-terrorism activities (Sandoval, 2012; Lee, 2013; Staniforth and Nitsch, 2013) and the role of social media in sharing terrorist information (Burnap et al., 2014; Cheong, 2014; Holman et al., 2014; Simon et al., 2014).”
BackgroundCommunity organizations and mental health after the 2013 Boston Marathon bombings
Jose, R., Holman, E. A., & Silver, R. C. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.08.019 · Cited by 12
Self-citationLong-Term Reactions to the Loss of a Close Friend in an Extreme Terror Incident
Johnsen, I., Dyregrov, K., Matthiesen, S. B., & Laberg, J. C. (2018) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.1177/0030222818814052 · Cited by 10
Hikmah, K., Prisandy, L., Melinda, G., & Ayatullah, M. I. (2020) · Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.3889/oamjms.2020.5386 · Cited by 11
“In a large-scale health review, the prevalence of anxiety was surveyed by asking respondents whether they were diagnosed with anxiety by a health professional over the past year [16].”
BackgroundAymerich-Franch, L. (2023) · Journal of Leisure Research · doi:10.1080/00222216.2022.2136987 · Cited by 45
Acute Stress Disorders Among Jordanian Adolescents After Watching Gaza News Footage on Social Media
Al-Maghaireh, D., Shawish, N. S., Alsaqer, K., Kawafha, M., Sheyab, H., Mushasha, R. A. A., & Kofahi, A. A. (2024) · Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare · doi:10.2147/jmdh.s461333 · Cited by 9
“11,15 Students in Jordan, like their counterparts globally, come across reports on the Gaza conflict through media outlets, including social networking sites.”
BackgroundInfluentialSingh, S., & Kaurav, R. P. S. (2022) · Vision The Journal of Business Perspective · doi:10.1177/09722629221130831 · Cited by 10
Metadata
- Authors
- Holman, E. A., Garfin, D. R., & Silver, R. C.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- Departments of bPsychology and Social Behavior and
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2013-12-09
- Volume
- 111
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 93-98
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC3890785
- OpenAlex
- W2061777840
- Cited by
- 513
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 57 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 82 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 21.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
- Keywords
- Boston Marathon bombing, acute stress, media exposure, collective trauma, media influence, post-traumatic stress, September 11 attacks, Superstorm Sandy, television viewing
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Boston, Female, Health Status, Health Surveys, Humans, Male, Mass Media, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Radio, Stress, Psychological, Television, Internet, Terrorism, Bombs, Young Adult, Social Media
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