The DOI matches its Crossref record; 119 of the 119 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 99 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Autism as a disorder of prediction
Open accessAbstract
Significance: Autism is characterized by diverse behavioral traits. Guided by theoretical considerations and empirical data, this paper develops the hypothesis that many of autism's salient traits may be manifestations of an underlying impairment in predictive abilities. This impairment renders an otherwise orderly world to be experienced as a capriciously “magical” one. The hypothesis elucidates the information-processing roots of autism and, thereby, can aid the identification of neural structures likely to be differentially affected. Behavioral and neural measures of prediction might serve as early assays of predictive abilities in infants, and serve as useful tools in intervention design and in monitoring their effectiveness. The hypothesis also points to avenues for further research to determine molecular and circuit-level causal underpinnings of predictive impairments.
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47 Not checked yet · 34 Own interpretation · 2 No basis given
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In the paper
“The underlying domains all constitute temporally unfolding Markov systems, with progressions from one state to another governed by probabilistic links (Fig. 1 A ).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] source
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plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“As a consequence of this shift, several relationships that are evident to a neurotypical individual would become undetectable to a person with autism.”
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In the paper
“It is estimated that more than one-third of all individuals on the autism spectrum display some form of IoS (14).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] source
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In the paper
“Insistence on sameness (IoS) is a hallmark feature of autism.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [15] source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Predictability is a fundamental modulator of anxiety in that reduction in the ability to predict events, even without any associated aversive consequence, enhances anxious responses (21, 22).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] Abbott BB, Badia P (1986) Predictable versus unpredictable shock conditions and physiological measures of stress: A reply to Arthur. Psychol Bull 100:384 -387. source
- Not checked yetcites [22] Herry C, et al. (2007) Processing of temporal unpredictability in human and animal amygdala. J Neurosci 27(22):5958 -5966. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Past research with diverse populations has shown that environmental unpredictability is strongly correlated with anxiety (16 -20).”
What the sources say
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“These hypersensitivities cannot be explained as outcomes of abnormally enhanced sensation (29 -31).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] DePape A-MR, Hall GBC, Tillmann B, Trainor LJ (2012) Auditory processing in highfunctioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. PLoS ONE 7(9):e44084. source
- Not checked yetcites [30] Bölte S, et al. (2012) A close eye on the eagle-eyed visual acuity hypothesis of autism. J Autism Dev Disord 42(5):726 -733. source
- Not checked yetcites [31] Ashwin E, Ashwin C, Rhydderch D, Howells J, Baron-Cohen S (2009) Eagle-eyed visual acuity: An experimental investigation of enhanced perception in autism. Biol Psychiatry 65(1):17 -21. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“suggesting that stimming may be an anxiolytic response to a chaotic world: an attempt to drown out the influx of unpredictable environmental information by self-generated periodic and, hence, more predictable information.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A direct corollary is that reduced habituation reduces stimulus suppression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: Habituation suppresses sustained stimulation.
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In the paper
“Studies with neurologically healthy humans and animals reveal that the ritualistic behaviors that emerge under conditions of unpredictability serve as a calming response to an externally imposed stressor (25, 26).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [25] Maier NRF (1939) Studies of Abnormal Behavior in the Rat (Harper, New York).
- Not checked yetcites [26] Eilam D, Izhar R, Mort J (2011) Threat detection: Behavioral practices in animals and humans. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 35(4):999 -1006. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“parental reports indicate that stimming behaviors are most evident in situations of heightened external stimulation (27)”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Lipsky D (2011) From Anxiety to Meltdown: How Individuals on the Autism Spectrum Deal with Anxiety, Experience Meltdowns, Manifest Tantrums, and How You Can Intervene Effectively (Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London), pp 74 -75.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Thus, aversion to environmental sounds that individuals with autism exhibit could arise from reduced habituation (33).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [33] Kleinhans NM, et al. (2009) Reduced neural habituation in the amygdala and social impairments in autism spectrum disorders. Am J Psychiatry 166(4):467 -475. source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: Habituation suppresses sustained stimulation.
In the paper
“Immersion in an unrelentingly salient stimulus is known to be anxiogenic, as studies of the consequences of sensory bombardment have shown (32).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [32] Plutchik R (1959) The effects of high intensity intermittent sound on performance, feeling and physiology 56:133 -151. source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Anxiety, especially when it is elevated chronically, is known to give rise to ritualistic behavior.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [23] Soussignan R, Koch P (1985) Rhythmical stereotypies (leg-swinging) associated with reductions in heart-rate in normal school children. Biol Psychol 21(3):161 -167. source
- Not checked yetcites [24] Fox MW (1986) Laboratory Animal Husbandry: Ethology, Welfare, and Experimental Variables (State Univ of New York Press, Albany).
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given the prediction-reliant nature of tasks requiring interactions with dynamic objects, the PIA hypothesis provides a plausible account of the difficulties that individuals with autism encounter in such settings.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“to interact with a dynamic object, there is a crucial step beyond detection: anticipating where the moving object is likely to be so as to plan one ' s motor movements appropriately to intercept/avoid the object.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Impairment in prediction would render an observer unable to situate current observations about a person in the context of their antecedents or likely future states. The observer, in effect, will be constrained to interpret observations ' in the moment. '”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In this way, the PIA hypothesis provides a simple account of the difficulties autistic individuals experience with theory of mind”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“An autistic individual, not having access to such predictive relationships, is constrained to interpret behaviors without any motivating history, social or otherwise (49).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [49] Klin A (2000) Attributing social meaning to ambiguous visual stimuli in higherfunctioning autism and Asperger syndrome: The Social Attribution Task. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 41(7):831 -846. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Having access to a probabilistic conditional relationship between observed movement patterns and potential histories, neurotypical individuals are able to ascribe causes to the former.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48] Heider F, Simmel M (1944) An experimental study of apparent behavior. Am J Psychol 57:243 -259. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Individuals with autism have been reported to show preserved, or even enhanced, abilities relative to neurotypical controls in several domains (50).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [50] Wallace GL (2008) Neuropsychological studies of savant skills: Can they inform the neuroscience of giftedness? Roeper Rev 30:229 -246. source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Several studies have shown that basic motion detection and direction perception thresholds are largely unimpaired in autism (43 -45).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [43] Bertone A, Mottron L, Jelenic P, Faubert J (2003) Motion perception in autism: A ' complex ' issue. J Cogn Neurosci 15(2):218 -225. source
- Not checked yetcites [44] Swettenham J, Campbell R (2005) Motion perception and autistic spectrum disorder : A review. Curr Psychol Cogn 23:3 -33.
- Not checked yetcites [45] Mottron L, Dawson M, Soulières I, Hubert B, Burack J (2006) Enhanced perceptual functioning in autism: An update, and eight principles of autistic perception. J Autism Dev Disord 36(1):27 -43. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Deducing why a person acted a certain way, or anticipating how a person is likely to act, requires the estimation of a conditional probability”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Impairments in Theory of mind are a prominent correlate of autism (47).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] Baron-Cohen S, Leslie AM, Frith U (1985) Does the autistic child have a ' theory of mind ' ? Cognition 21(1):37 -46. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Given the elevation of novelty due to impaired predictive skills, one would expect hyperactivation of the brainstem and basal ganglia in individuals with autism.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Notably, such hyperplasticity would, in turn, further impair instance aggregation and, thus, an accurate estimation of probability values.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“significant evidence suggests that these structures play an important role in modulating learning (65, 66).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [65] Schultz W, Dayan P, Montague PR (1997) A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science 275(5306):1593 -1599. source
- Not checked yetcites [66] Sutton RS, Barto AG (1998) Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA).
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Detailed studies of musical savants with autism reveal that the basis for exceptional recall and performance, including improvisation, is familiarity with the structure of music and, thus, depends on adherence to rules (63).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [63] Young RL, Nettelbeck T (1995) The abilities of a musical savant and his family. J Autism Dev Disord 25(3):231 -248. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is known that activity in the brainstem and basal ganglia is modulated by novelty (64).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [64] Joshua M, Adler A, Bergman H (2010) Novelty encoding by the output neurons of the Basal Ganglia. Front Syst Neurosci 3:20.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“An important outcome of reduction in predictive abilities is a heightening of the perceived novelty of environmental stimuli.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“An examination of studies of preserved or enhanced proficiency in music (61, 62) reveals that the observed high performance is typically in replication.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [61] Miller L (1989) Musical Savants: Exceptional Skill in the Mentally Retarded (Psychology, New York).
- Not checked yetcites [62] Oe K (1996) A Healing Family (Kodansha International, Tokyo).
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“precisely such hyperplasticity has been reported in mouse models of autism (67).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [67] Rinaldi T, Perrodin C, Markram H (2008) Hyper-connectivity and hyper-plasticity in the medial prefrontal cortex in the valproic acid animal model of autism. Front Neural Circuits 2:4. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“such factors as perfect pitch, prodigious memory, and extensive rehearsal, while contributing to the extraordinary skill set, are not sufficient to explain it (50, 58, 60).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [50] Wallace GL (2008) Neuropsychological studies of savant skills: Can they inform the neuroscience of giftedness? Roeper Rev 30:229 -246. source
- Not checked yetcites [58] Rimland B, Hill AL (1984) Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities , ed Wortis J (Pleneum, New York), pp 155 -169. source
- Not checked yetcites [60] Pring L (2005) Savant talent. Dev Med Child Neurol 47(7):500 -503. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In neurotypical individuals, the key brain loci that have been implicated in prediction are basal ganglia (68, 69), striatum (70, 71), anterior cingulate (72), and cerebellum (73, 74).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [68] Schultz W, Tremblay L, Hollerman JR (1998) Reward prediction in primate basal ganglia and front cortex. Neuropharmacology 37(4 -5):421 -429. source
- Not checked yetcites [69] Tanaka SC, et al. (2004) Prediction of immediate and future rewards differentially recruits cortico-basal ganglia loops. Nat Neurosci 7(8):887 -893. source
- Not checked yetcites [70] Cooper JC, Dunne S, Furey T, O ' Doherty JP (2012) Human dorsal striatum encodes prediction errors during observational learning of instrumental actions. J Cogn Neurosci 24(1):106 -118. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As the foregoing discussion suggests, the PIA hypothesis provides a parsimonious account of some notable aspects of the autism phenotype.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is particularly interesting to note Emerich et al. ' s (86) finding that adolescents with autism had special difficulty ' handling surprise and coherence within humorous narratives. '”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [86] Emerich DM, Creaghead NA, Grether SM, Murray D, Grasha C (2003) The comprehension of humorous materials by adolescents with high-functioning autism and Asperger ' s syndrome. J Autism Dev Disord 33(3):253 -257. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Starting from a very early age, much of human motor behavior is anticipatory in nature.”
- Also stated in: § 3. Predictions Arising from the PIA Hypothesis · p. 5 · boosted
“there is extensive evidence for motor anticipation (87 -89).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [87] Hugon M, Massion J, Wiesendanger M (1982) Anticipatory postural changes induced by active unloading and comparison with passive unloading in man. Pflugers Arch 393(4):292 -296. source
- Not checked yetcites [88] Reddy V, Markova G, Wallot S (2013) Anticipatory adjustments to being picked up in infancy. PLoS ONE 8(6):e65289. source
- Not checked yetcites [89] Ambrosini E, et al. (2013) Looking ahead: Anticipatory gaze and motor ability in infancy. PLoS ONE 8(7):e67916. source
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § 3. Predictions Arising from the PIA Hypothesis · p. 5 · boosted
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In the paper
“Indeed, the emerging picture from recent neuro-imaging, postmortem, and animal-model studies is that atypicalities in these regions are associated with autism (75 -80).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [75] Thakkar KN, et al. (2008) Response monitoring, repetitive behaviour and anterior cingulate abnormalities in autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Brain 131(Pt 9): 2464 -2478. source
- Not checked yetcites [76] Peça J, et al. (2011) Shank3 mutant mice display autistic-like behaviours and striatal dysfunction. Nature 472(7344):437 -442. source
- Not checked yetcites [77] Qiu A, Adler M, Crocetti D, Miller MI, Mostofsky SH (2010) Basal ganglia shapes predict social, communication, and motor dysfunctions in boys with autism spectrum disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 49(6):539 -551, e1 -e4.
- Not checked yetcites [78] Sears LL, et al. (1999) An MRI study of the basal ganglia in autism. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 23(4):613 -624. source
- Not checked yetcites [79] Fatemi SH, et al. (2012) Consensus paper: Pathological role of the cerebellum in autism. Cerebellum 11(3):777 -807. source
- Not checked yetcites [80] Tsai PT, et al. (2012) Autistic-like behaviour and cerebellar dysfunction in Purkinje cell Tsc1 mutant mice. Nature 488(7413):647 -651. source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A key component of humor is violation of expectation (81, 82).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [81] Veatch TC (1998) A theory of humor. Humor 11:161 -215. source
- Not checked yetcites [82] McGraw AP, Warren C (2010) Benign violations: Making immoral behavior funny. APS 21:1141 -1149.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the absence of a strong prediction, a violation is harder to define and detect.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Although systematic research on how autism affects the sense of humor is still in its infancy, some evidence supports this prediction.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [83] Asperger H (1944) Die ' Autistischen Psychopathen ' im Kindesalter. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 117:76 -136.
- Not checked yetcites [84] Lyons V, Fitzgerald M (2004) Humor in autism and Asperger syndrome. J Autism Dev Disord 34(5):521 -531. source
- Not checked yetcites [85] Samson AC, Huber O, Ruch W (2013) Seven decades after Hans Asperger ' s observations: A comprehensive study of humor in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Humor 26:441 -460. source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A benign deviation from that prediction often constitutes a humorous outcome (82).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [82] McGraw AP, Warren C (2010) Benign violations: Making immoral behavior funny. APS 21:1141 -1149.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hence, opportunities for perceiving humor in narratives or observations are diminished.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Even in his initial case reports, Kanner (92) noted poor anticipation on the part of autistic children to being picked-up by their parents.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [92] Kanner L (1968) Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Acta Paedopsychiatr 35(4): 100 -136.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, it would be misleading to think that the observed heterogeneity entirely overwhelms similarities.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The evidence so far is generally consistent with this prediction (90, 91).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [90] Hughes C (1996) Brief report: Planning problems in autism at the level of motor control. J Autism Dev Disord 26(1):99 -107. source
- Not checked yetcites [91] Schmitz C, Martineau J, Barthélémy C, Assaiante C (2003) Motor control and children with autism: Deficit of anticipatory function? Neurosci Lett 348(1):17 -20. source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, the PIA hypothesis does not require that the predictive impairment be identical across all individuals; under the umbrella PIA hypothesis, there may well be parametric variations, as depicted in Fig. 2 B .”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Fournier et al. (94), among others (95, 96), have found poor postural control in children with autism.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [94] Fournier KA, et al. (2010) Decreased static and dynamic postural control in children with autism spectrum disorders. Gait Posture 32(1):6 -9. source
- Not checked yetcites [95] Molloy CA, Dietrich KN, Bhattacharya A (2003) Postural stability in children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 33(6):643 -652. source
- Not checked yetcites [96] Minshew NJ, Sung K, Jones BL, Furman JM (2004) Underdevelopment of the postural control system in autism. Neurology 63(11):2056 -2061. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Given that anticipatory processes have been implicated even in the maintenance of muscle tone (97)”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [97] Vishton PM, Reardon KM, Stevens JA (2010) Timing of anticipatory muscle tensing control: Responses before and after expected impact. Exp Brain Res 202(3):661 -667. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“More recently, in a retrospective analysis Brisson et al. (93) have reported anticipatory failure during feeding situations in infants between 4 and 6 mo old who were later diagnosed as having autism.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [93] Brisson J, Warreyn P, Serres J, Foussier S, Adrien-Louis J (2012) Motor anticipation failure in infants with autism: A retrospective analysis of feeding situations. Autism 16(4):420 -429. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the PIA hypothesis might also help account for some aspects of hypotonia observed in children with autism.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“First, despite the heterogeneity across cases of autism, there is also preserved commonality (98 -100).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [98] Tager-Flusberg H, Joseph RM (2003) Identifying neurocognitive phenotypes in autism. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 358(1430):303 -314. source
- Not checked yetcites [99] Losh M, Childress D, Lam K, Piven J (2008) Defining key features of the broad autism phenotype: A comparison across parents of multiple- and single-incidence autism families. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 147B(4):424 -433. source
- Not checked yetcites [100] Jones W, Klin A (2009) Heterogeneity and homogeneity across the autism spectrum: The role of development. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48(5):471 -473. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although not conclusive evidence, this further lends support to the possibility of shared causality for seemingly different behavioral traits.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The general point is that explanations exist, but are typically tied to specific traits.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Cathy Lord and her coworkers (107) have found that the ability to throw or catch a ball is correlated with social skills success in children with autism.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [107] MacDonald M, Lord C, Ulrich DA (2013) The relationship of motor skills and social communicative skills in school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Adapt Phys Activ Q 30(3):271 -282. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Indeed, some recent data show that superficially very different aspects of the autism phenotype may, in fact, be linked.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [107] MacDonald M, Lord C, Ulrich DA (2013) The relationship of motor skills and social communicative skills in school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Adapt Phys Activ Q 30(3):271 -282. source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 14
- It may state two separate claims as one. 14
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we describe how theoretical considerations and a review of empirical data lead to the hypothesis that some salient aspects of the autism phenotype may be manifestations of an underlying impairment in predictive abilities.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The hypothesis of predictive impairment in autism (PIA) posits that autism may be associated with inaccuracies in estimating the P (B j A, Δ t ) conditional probability.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To perform well in these domains, one necessarily needs to estimate the underlying Markov system, i.e., the matrix of interstate transition probabilities.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A reduction in one ' s predictive ability would, in this space, manifest as a shift of the ASF toward the upper left.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“from an observed temporal sequence, the brain has to estimate the conditional probability P (B j A, Δ t )”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“It is estimated that nearly 90% of all children on the autism spectrum suffer from sensory abnormalities, often hypersensitivities, to stimuli that a neurotypical individual could easily ignore (28).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] Leekam SR, Nieto C, Libby SJ, Wing L, Gould J (2007) Describing the sensory abnormalities of children and adults with autism. J Autism Dev Disord 37(5):894 -910. source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, these results suggest that rituals and an insistence on sameness may be a consequence of, and a way to mitigate, anxiety arising out of unpredictability.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a parsimonious interpretation of the reliance on rituals and stimming behaviors observed in autism is that they emerge from, and represent attempts to minimize, the consequences of unpredictability.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A key determinant of habituation is stimulus predictability. For typically developing subjects, predictability of a sequence is directly proportional to the extent of habituation it induces (22, 34 -36).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [22] Herry C, et al. (2007) Processing of temporal unpredictability in human and animal amygdala. J Neurosci 27(22):5958 -5966. source
- Not checked yetcites [34] Sokolov EN (1960) The Central Nervous System and Behavior III (Macy Foundation, New York).
- Not checked yetcites [35] McDaniel JW (1964) The effects of stimulus predictability upon auditory habituation and acquisition. Dissertation (Texas Technical College, Lubbock, TX).
- Not checked yetcites [36] Turk-Browne NB, Scholl BJ, Chun MM (2008) Babies and brains: Habituation in infant cognition and functional neuroimaging. Front Hum Neurosci 2:16.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Computational systems for dynamic object tracking rely on predictive techniques such as Kalman filtering (46). These systems demonstrate that a key consequence of impaired prediction is errors in online position estimation.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [46] Welch G, Bishop G (2001) An introduction to the Kalman Filter. Proc SIGGRAPH 2001 (Association for Computing Machinery, Los Angeles), pp 19 -24.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reduction in discerning predictive relationships between events in a stimulus sequence would reduce a person ' s ability to predict the onset of the next event. Such a lack of predictability would compromise habituation and lead to hypersensitivity.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Habituation suppresses sustained stimulation.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Theory of mind requires the ability to ascribe invisible causes to observations about a person by connecting past history with current behavior.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the PIA hypothesis suggests that an endogenous predictive impairment causes environmental stimuli to appear more chaotic, leading to reduced habituation and hence greater stress.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Habituation suppresses sustained stimulation.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Several studies have demonstrated that unpredictability of stressors is one of the key aspects of torture and leads to the development of anxiety, fear, and aversion (19, 37).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [19] source
- Not checked yetcites [37] Bas ¸o glu M, Mineka S (1992) The role of uncontrollable and unpredictable stress in posttraumatic stress responses in torture survivors. Torture and Its Consequences: Current Treatment Approaches (Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge, UK), pp 185 -255.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If the prediction systems of the brain are differentially affected in autism, then one can expect that the skills left largely untouched would be the ones that are deterministic and where good performance does not depend on estimates of temporally unfolding conditional probabilities.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hyperarousal of these structures would, in turn, be expected to lead to hypermalleability of learning; current exposure would have disproportionate weight and supersede earlier experience, constituting a kind of ' hyperplasticity. '”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most of them, especially mathematics calendar calculations and music, are strongly rule-based, and, thus, minimize uncertainty of outcomes. Furthermore, with the exception of music, they are static, thereby obviating the need for prediction over time.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“More recent studies (84, 85) have also documented these observations.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [84] Lyons V, Fitzgerald M (2004) Humor in autism and Asperger syndrome. J Autism Dev Disord 34(5):521 -531. source
- Not checked yetcites [85] Samson AC, Huber O, Ruch W (2013) Seven decades after Hans Asperger ' s observations: A comprehensive study of humor in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Humor 26:441 -460. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In describing his patients, Hans Asperger had noted that ' an essential characteristic of these children is their humorlessness. They do not understand jokes . . . ' (83).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [83] Asperger H (1944) Die ' Autistischen Psychopathen ' im Kindesalter. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 117:76 -136.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the notion of core impairments, shared by most cases of autism, seems to be at odds with the heterogeneity of the phenotype.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Based on theoretical considerations and a review of past literature, we believe that predictive impairment may constitute an endophenotype shared across individuals.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Autism can have many etiologies, and yet, there is some commonality across manifestations, hence a shared clinical diagnosis.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [98] Tager-Flusberg H, Joseph RM (2003) Identifying neurocognitive phenotypes in autism. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 358(1430):303 -314. source
- Not checked yetcites [99] Losh M, Childress D, Lam K, Piven J (2008) Defining key features of the broad autism phenotype: A comparison across parents of multiple- and single-incidence autism families. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 147B(4):424 -433. source
- Not checked yetcites [100] Jones W, Klin A (2009) Heterogeneity and homogeneity across the autism spectrum: The role of development. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48(5):471 -473. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such parametric differences may help account for the phenotypic variability observed across individuals on the autism spectrum and also potentially provide the basis for a principled taxonomy of different autism subtypes.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although it is certainly possible that the different autistic traits have different etiologies, what is appealing about the PIA hypothesis is its parsimony -an account that is able to provide a unifying explanation for not just a single trait, but for several of them.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“Motor difficulties are believed to arise from abnormalities in the cerebellum (106).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [106] Mostofsky SH, et al. (2009) Decreased connectivity and cerebellar activity in autism during motor task performance. Brain 132(Pt 9):2413 -2425. source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Explanatory accounts have indeed been offered for each of the autistic traits we have described in Sections 2 and 3 .”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [102] Takeuchi M, Harada M, Nishitani H (2002) Deficiency of ' theory of mind ' in autism estimated by fMRI. Int Congr Ser 1232:737 -740. source
- Not checked yetcites [103] Gallese V, Goldman A (1998) Mirror neurons and the simulation theory of mindreading. Trends Cogn Sci 2(12):493 -501. source
- Not checked yetcites [104] Hadjikhani N (2007) Mirror neuron system and autism Progress in Autism Research , ed Carlisle PC, (Nova Science Publishers, Happauge, NY), pp 151 -166.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For instance, difficulties in Theory of Mind have been suggested as arising from abnormalities of the cortical substrates for social cognition (102) or in the mirror neuron system (refs. 103 and 104 but see 105).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [102] Takeuchi M, Harada M, Nishitani H (2002) Deficiency of ' theory of mind ' in autism estimated by fMRI. Int Congr Ser 1232:737 -740. source
- Not checked yetcites [103] Gallese V, Goldman A (1998) Mirror neurons and the simulation theory of mindreading. Trends Cogn Sci 2(12):493 -501. source
- Not checked yetcites [104] Hadjikhani N (2007) Mirror neuron system and autism Progress in Autism Research , ed Carlisle PC, (Nova Science Publishers, Happauge, NY), pp 151 -166.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Autism has multiple causes.
“Autism likely owes its genesis to a multiplicity of causes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Habituation suppresses sustained stimulation.
“A key role in suppressing sustained stimulation is played by our ability to habituate.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“There may be important differences in neurobiological, emotional and cognitive responses to stressors for autistic people, which warrant tailored anxiety models, assessments and interventions [24].”
From Autistic Cognition: Charting Routes to Anxiety (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“with autism even being cast as a 'disorder of prediction' [136].”
From How Do Expectations Shape Perception? (2018) · cites this paper as [136]
In the citing paper
“In the elaboration of the Bayesian brain hypothesis of ASD (2) and subsequent theoretical papers (3, 4, 97–99), results from numerous earlier cognitive and psychophysical studies were re-interpreted post hoc in the novel framework.”
From Can Bayesian Theories of Autism Spectrum Disorder Help Improve Clinical Practice? (2016) · cites this paper as [99]
In the citing paper
“A theory of ASD that is rapidly gaining credibility is the notion that individuals with ASD do not have a robust historical representation of the world. This lack of a probabilistic “map” of the world makes it difficult for those with ASD to predict upcoming events, and this lack of predictive coding thus limits interactions with the external environment (Pellicano and Burr, 2012; Sinha et al., 2”
From Behavioral, Perceptual, and Neural Alterations in Sensory and Multisensory Function in Autism Spectrum Disorder (2015) · cites this paper as Sinha et al., 2014
Citations
Cites
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
American Psychiatric Association (2013) · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 · Cited by 116,369
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
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Background
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Metadata
- Authors
- Sinha, P., Kjelgaard, M. M., Gandhi, T. K., Tsourides, K., Cardinaux, A. L., Pantazis, D., Diamond, S. P., & Held, R. M.
- Affiliations
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- MGH Institute of Health Professions (US)
- Defence Institute of Physiology and Allied Sciences (IN)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2014-10-06
- Volume
- 111
- Issue
- 42
- Pages
- 15220-15225
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC4210351
- OpenAlex
- W2088415689
- Cited by
- 563
- References
- 119
- Citations by year
- 2026: 43 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 41 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 36 · 2015: 20
- FWCI
- 17.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, prediction, predictive processing, autism phenotype, theory of mind, social cognition, diagnostic biomarkers, autism treatment
- MeSH terms
- Autistic Disorder, Basal Ganglia, Cerebellum, Cognition, Corpus Striatum, Humans, Infant, Language, Markov Chains, Models, Theoretical, Neuronal Plasticity, Phenotype, Probability, Social Behavior, Time Factors
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-05, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-05 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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