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Cited by 370Autism Spectrum Disorder ResearchMultisensory perception and integrationGenetics and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Behavioral, Perceptual, and Neural Alterations in Sensory and Multisensory Function in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Open access
Baum, Sarah H., Stevenson, Ryan A., Wallace, Mark T.·2015·Progress in Neurobiology
DOI 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.09.007PMC PMC4730891
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Abstract

Although sensory processing challenges have been noted since the first clinical descriptions of autism, it has taken until the release of the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) in 2013 for sensory problems to be included as part of the core symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the diagnostic profile. Because sensory information forms the building blocks for higher-order social and cognitive functions, we argue that sensory processing is not only an additional piece of the puzzle, but rather a critical cornerstone for characterizing and understanding ASD. In this review we discuss what is currently known about sensory processing in ASD, how sensory function fits within contemporary models of ASD, and what is understood about the differences in the underlying neural processing of sensory and social communication observed between individuals with and without ASD. In addition to highlighting the sensory features associated with ASD, we also emphasize the importance of multisensory processing in building perceptual and cognitive representations, and how deficits in multisensory integration may also be a core characteristic of ASD.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review argues that sensory and multisensory processing alterations are a core, underappreciated cornerstone of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), not merely an additional symptom. It synthesizes behavioral, perceptual, and neural evidence showing both unisensory differences and multisensory integration deficits that may cascade into social-communicative and cognitive symptoms.

Key findings

  • Sensory abnormalities are highly prevalent in ASD, reported in up to 87% of individuals, and were formally included in the DSM-5 diagnostic profile in 2013; the paper cites an ASD incidence of 1 in 68 children, and as high as 1 in 42 for boys.
  • ASD shows a simple/complex dissociation: intact or enhanced processing of simple stimuli (e.g., pitch, first-order visual features, some tactile thresholds) but difficulties with complex stimuli (e.g., second-order visual features, speech/prosody, face and object processing). In Järvinen-Pasley studies, individuals with ASD outperformed typically developing peers on pitch perception but underperformed on sentence content.
  • Multisensory integration is reduced in ASD beyond what unisensory performance predicts: less benefit from visible speech in noise, diminished McGurk fusion, reduced sound-induced flash illusion, delayed rubber-hand and crossed-hand illusion effects, and altered audiovisual temporal acuity. EEG studies report decreased multisensory integration as early as 100 ms, with 100–130 ms effects correlated with clinical severity, and weaker/delayed auditory-somatosensory integration around 175 ms.
  • Neural findings include reduced functional and structural connectivity, atypical face/voice/STS/FFA responses, reduced GABA in auditory/motor and frontal cortex, and excitation/inhibition imbalance; approximately 30% of individuals with ASD report seizures, and 50–70% of children with ASD show abnormal electrical activity during sleep.

Methods

  • Design: narrative review of behavioral, perceptual, neuroimaging (fMRI, DTI, resting-state), EEG/ERP, and plasticity/remediation literature on sensory and multisensory function in ASD.
  • Data or sample: no primary sample; synthesizes published studies comparing individuals with ASD and typically developing controls, including children and adults.
  • Main analysis: qualitative synthesis and theoretical framing within theory of mind, weak central coherence, predictive coding, reduced sensory precision/reliability, excitation/inhibition imbalance, and temporal binding hypotheses.

Limitations

  • Stated in the paper: ASD sensory research often focuses on a single sense or a small subset of tasks, limiting generalization; no strong consensus exists on a unifying theory of ASD; resting-state fMRI studies are confounded by motion and data-scrubbing artifacts; sensory integration therapy is based on subjective therapist judgments; better empirical characterization and computational modeling are needed.
  • Stated in the paper: ASD heterogeneity and difficulty parsing sensory contributions from attention, executive function, and social-cognitive factors complicate interpretation.
  • Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not systematically search or quantify the literature, conduct a meta-analysis, or present primary data to test causal claims.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.09.007

Cites

368 of 368 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

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  • Interpretationnone given

    Deficits in multisensory integration may be a core characteristic of ASD.

    “how deficits in multisensory integration may also be a core characteristic of ASD”
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  • Premisecitation

    Deficits in multisensory integration are observed between ASD and TD children even when unisensory performance is unimpaired.

    “deficits in multisensory integration are noted between children with ASD and their typically developing (TD) peers even when unisensory performance is unimpaired (Foxe et al., 2013; Stevenson et al., 2014c; Stevenson et al., 2014d, e)”
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    • cites Stevenson et al., 2014c

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    • cites Stevenson et al., 2014d, e

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  • Premisecitation

    Structured questionnaires consistently identify processing challenges in multiple sensory domains in ASD.

    “structured questionnaires invariably identify the presence of processing challenges in a number of sensory domains (Baranek et al., 2006; Rogers et al., 2003; Watling et al., 2001)”
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  • Interpretationreasoning

    Multisensory function is likely more strongly altered in ASD than unisensory function.

    “it can be argued that such multisensory function is likely to be more strongly altered in ASD, given that many of the multisensory deficits observed in ASD go beyond what would be predicted by the individual unisensory performance”
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  • Interpretationreasoning

    Differences in connectivity between distant brain regions in ASD suggest a propensity towards multisensory deficits.

    “evidence for differences in connectivity between distant brain regions in children with ASD (Abrams et al., 2013; Assaf et al., 2010; Maximo et al., 2014; Plitt et al., 2015) would also suggest a propensity towards multisensory deficits”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Sensory processing is a critical cornerstone for characterizing and understanding ASD.

    “we argue that sensory processing is not only an additional piece of the puzzle, but rather a critical cornerstone for characterizing and understanding ASD”
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    Interpretationnone given

    Sensory information serves as the foundation for higher-order social and cognitive functions.

    “Because sensory information forms the building blocks for higher-order social and cognitive functions”
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    Premisecitation

    In the visual system, individuals with ASD are better at discriminating first-order orientations but have difficulties with second-order orientations.

    “individuals with ASD have been shown to be better in discriminating between visual stimulus orientations that are defined on the basis of changes in luminance (”first-order” features, characterized at each point of an image independently), but to show difficulties in perceiving differences when these orientations are defined on the basis of contrast or textural cues (”second-order” features, which”
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    Premisecitation

    Seeing a speaker's lips in a noisy environment improves speech intelligibility by up to 15 dB.

    “Estimates suggest that the information gain in this situation is the equivalent of boosting the audible signal by up to 15 dB (Sumby and Pollack, 1954)”
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    Premisereasoning

    Integration of information across senses is essential for constructing healthy perceptual representations and cognitive abilities.

    “The integration of information across the different senses is an essential process in the construction of healthy perceptual representations, and can be argued to represent one of the basic building blocks for the construction of cognitive representations and abilities”
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    Premisecitation

    Individuals with ASD have normal or enhanced performance in tasks relying on stimulus detail analysis but may have difficulties integrating detail into a holistic image.

    “individuals with ASD have either normal or enhanced performance in tasks that rely on the analysis of stimulus detail, but may have difficulties when this detail needs to be integrated in order to form a holistic image”
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    • cites Happé, 1996

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    Premisecitation

    Individuals with ASD show behavioral improvements for simple non-social sensory stimuli but deficits for more complex stimuli.

    “those with ASD have been reported to show behavioral improvements when perceiving simple, non-social sensory stimuli, yet to show deficits when perceiving more complex stimuli (Bertone et al., 2003, 2005; Bonnel et al., 2003; Minshew and Hobson, 2008; Mottron et al., 2006; Ristic et al., 2005; Vlamings et al., 2005)”
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    Premisecitation

    Multisensory regions are found throughout the spinal cord, brainstem, and cerebral cortex.

    “These multisensory regions are found throughout the spinal cord and brainstem and are widely elaborated within the cerebral cortex (Beauchamp et al., 2004; Perrault et al., 2005; Stein et al., 2014; Wallace and Stein, 2007)”
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    Premisecitation

    Neurons in multisensory regions are specialized for integration and show non-linear response profiles.

    “neurons and neuronal circuits are specialized for the integration of information from the different sensory modalities, and frequently show marked non-linearities in their response profiles that are associated with the active integration process (Beauchamp, 2005; Meredith and Stein, 1983, 1985; Stevenson et al., 2012; Stevenson et al., 2014a; Wallace et al., 1998; Wallace et al., 1996)”
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    • cites Stevenson et al., 2012

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    Premisenone given

    In ASD, there is evidence for alterations in both dorsal and ventral stream functions, but little consensus on the exact nature of these deficits.

    “In ASD, there is evidence for alterations in both dorsal and ventral stream functions, although there remains little consensus on the exact nature of these deficits.”
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    Premisecitation

    In the Embedded Figures Test, children with ASD are often better at counting simple shapes within a larger image but show decreased performance identifying the larger holistic image.

    “Children with ASD are often significantly better at counting the number of simple shapes within the larger image, but often show decreased performance in identifying the larger holistic image.”
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    Premisecitation

    ASD individuals show intact or enhanced performance on low-level auditory features such as frequency.

    “Similar results (and perhaps a tendency toward enhanced performance relative to their TD counterparts) have been observed with other low-level auditory features such as frequency (Heaton et al., 1999; Jones et al., 2009; Mottron et al., 2000)”
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    Premisecitation

    In simple reaction time tasks, responses to multisensory light-sound pairings are faster than to unisensory conditions and faster than race model predictions.

    “The speed of responses to the light-sound (i.e., multisensory) pairing is substantially faster than to either of the unisensory (i.e., visual alone or auditory alone) conditions, and is also faster than would be predicted based on pure probability summation”
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    Premisecitation

    Deficits in gaze patterns and face recognition in ASD are well established.

    “where deficits in both patterns of gaze and face recognition have been well established”
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    Premisecitation

    In a comparative analysis, children with ASD showed deficits in visual motion tasks, strongest for biological motion, but a large portion was accounted for by higher-order cognitive factors.

    “it was found that although children with ASD indeed showed deficits in visual motion tasks (with the strongest changes being seen in biological motion processing), that a large portion of this could be accounted for by differences in higher-order cognitive factors (Koldewyn et al., 2010)”
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    Premisecitation

    First-order visual features are processed in primary visual cortex, while second- and higher-order processing is mediated by regions further up the processing hierarchy.

    “the processing of first-order visual features is believed to be subserved by regions of primary visual cortex, second- and higher-order processing is suggested to be mediated by regions further up the processing hierarchy (Dumoulin et al., 2003)”
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    Premisecitation

    In Järvinen-Pasley studies, individuals with ASD outperformed TD peers on pitch perception but underperformed on perception of sentence content.

    “Individuals with ASD outperformed their TD peers on pitch perception, but underperformed on the perception of sentence content.”
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    • cites Järvinen-Pasley and Heaton, 2007

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    Premisecitation

    Individuals with ASD may be able to integrate visual-vestibular information optimally but have a poor tolerance for noise.

    “Recent work in the realm of visual-vestibular integration, however, suggests that individuals with ASD may be able to integrate information in an optimal fashion but have a poor tolerance for noise (Zaidel et al., 2015)”
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    Premisecitation

    Children with ASD show increased thresholds when localizing a static stimulus but no differences for detecting a dynamic stimulus.

    “children with ASD show increased thresholds when asked to localize a static (no change in amplitude over time) stimulus, but no differences in thresholds for the detection of a dynamic (amplitude increasing over time) stimulus (Puts et al., 2014)”
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    Interpretationcitation

    Individuals with autism spectrum disorder appear to integrate multisensory information less than typically developing peers, as shown by their weaker susceptibility to simple and complex sensory illusions that require integration.

    “Thus, across both a number of both simple and more complex sensory illusions that rely on integration for the illusory percept, individuals with ASD seem to show multisensory integration to a lesser extent than their TD peers based on their reduced susceptibility to these illusions.”
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    Premisecitation

    The superior temporal sulcus and temporoparietal junction receive convergent input from multiple sensory domains and play important roles in integrating that information.

    “Two of the presumptive brain regions mediating ToM function, the STS and TPJ (see above), receive convergent input from a variety of sensory domains and have been shown to play important roles in the integration of this information (Beauchamp et al., 2012; Downar et al., 2000, 2001; James et al., 2011; Shulman et al., 2003; Stevenson et al., 2007; Stevenson and James, 2009).”
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    • cites Downar et al., 2000, 2001

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    Premisecitation

    Some studies show little unisensory change despite substantial multisensory changes in autism spectrum disorder, while others show complex and difficult-to-interpret differences.

    “Although some of these studies have shown little change in unisensory function despite substantial changes in multisensory performance (Foxe et al., 2013; Stevenson et al., 2014c; Stevenson et al., 2014d, e), others have illustrated a complex pattern of differences that are ultimately difficult to interpret (Brandwein et al., 2012; Kwakye et al., 2011; Russo et al., 2010).”
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    • cites Stevenson et al., 2014c

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    Premisecitation

    For non-speech stimuli, findings are mixed: some studies find no difference between individuals with and without autism spectrum disorder, while others find differences.

    “Results are in less agreement with non-speech stimuli, where some have found no difference between individuals with and without ASD (Bebko et al., 2006; Stevenson et al., 2014c) while others have found differences (de Boer-Schellekens et al., 2013; Foss-Feig et al., 2010; Kwakye et al., 2011).”
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    Premisereasoning

    No strong consensus exists on a unifying theory or view of autism spectrum disorder.

    “no strong consensus yet exists as to a “unifying” theory or view on ASD.”
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    Premisecitation

    A later fMRI study of the Embedded Figures Test found reduced activation of the same visuospatial network and reduced connectivity between frontal and visuospatial areas in autism spectrum disorder.

    “A later fMRI study of the EFT found not only reduced activation of the same visuospatial network, but also reduced connectivity between frontal areas and visuospatial areas (Damarla et al., 2010).”
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    Premisecitation

    On the Müller-Lyer illusion, individuals with autism spectrum disorder report the illusory percept when asked which line looks longer, but are not susceptible when asked which line is longer.

    “For example, on the Müller-Lyer illusion, individuals with ASD report the illusory percept when asked which line looks longer, but are not susceptible when asked which line is longer (Brosnan et al., 2004)”
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    Premisecitation

    The theory of mind account proposes that individuals with autism spectrum disorder have a diminished ability to imagine motives and feelings outside their own mind, leading to social communicative deficits.

    “This theory suggests that those with ASD have a diminished ability to imagine motives and feelings outside of their own mind, and thus have profound deficits in social communicative interactions.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    In the predictive coding view, sensory-based performance differences may arise from weaknesses in comparing incoming sensory input with a statistical model of the world rather than from changes in sensory fidelity.

    “In this view, sensory-based performance differences may arise not from changes in the fidelity of the incoming sensory information, but rather from weaknesses in the ability to compare the incoming sensory stream with a statistical model of the world.”
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    Premisecitation

    In a Bayesian framework, poor predictive coding can be represented as a weak or flat prior probability distribution.

    “In a Bayesian framework, poor predictive coding can be thought of as having a weak (flat) prior probability distribution (Lawson et al., 2014)”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Unisensory processing deficits can produce changes in multisensory measures and can challenge claims that multisensory changes are specific to multisensory processing.

    “Indeed, processing deficits within a sensory modality will undoubtedly result in processing changes when indexing multisensory function, and consequently can call into question claims of any degree of multisensory specificity regarding the documented changes.”
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    Premisecitation

    Individuals with autism spectrum disorder may be just as susceptible to visual illusions as typically developing individuals, with the key being how the question is framed.

    “work by Brosnan and colleagues have shown that individuals with ASD may actually be just as susceptible to visual illusions, but that the key in revealing this is in how the question is framed in the task.”
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    Premisecitation

    Individuals with autism spectrum disorder show reduced functional connectivity and reduced white matter integrity in multiple theory of mind associated areas.

    “Both reduced functional connectivity and reduced white matter integrity has been observed in individuals with ASD in multiple ToM associated areas (Kana et al., 2014)”
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    Premisecitation

    Individuals with autism spectrum disorder show reduced responses to pleasant or neutral textures on the hand but greater posterior cingulate and insula responses to unpleasant texture.

    “individuals with ASD were shown to exhibit reduced responses for pleasant or neutral textures presented to the hand, but displayed a greater response to stimulation with an unpleasant texture in the posterior cingulate and insula (Cascio et al., 2012b).”
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    Premisecitation

    In this study, receptive field size positively correlated with autistic traits but not with orientation and direction discrimination.

    “Intriguingly, in this study the size of the receptive fields were positively correlated with autistic traits (as measured by the Autism Quotient questionnaire), but not with behavioral measures like orientation and direction discrimination.”
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    Premisecitation

    In an auditory detection task with simple tones, individuals with autism spectrum disorder perform equivalently to typically developing peers and show similar temporal cortex activation but greater right prefrontal/premotor and left inferior parietal activation.

    “In an auditory detection task using simple tone stimuli, individuals with ASD performed equivalently to their TD peers, and fMRI showed similar activation in temporal cortex but greater activation of right prefrontal and premotor cortex as well as left inferior parietal cortex in individuals with ASD during the detection task (Gomot et al., 2008).”
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    Premisecitation

    In autism spectrum disorder, the prevailing view is that excitation may be increased and inhibition may be reduced.

    “with the prevailing view that excitation may be increased (greater glutamateric signaling) and inhibition may be reduced (less GABAergic signaling; Rubenstein and Merzenich, 2003).”
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    Premisecitation

    Activity in these areas is positively correlated with sensory over-responsivity scores and behavioral anxiety ratings.

    “Furthermore, the level of activity in these areas was positively correlated with sensory over-responsivity scores and behavioral anxiety ratings.”
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    • cites Green et al., 2013 source

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    Premisecitation

    In children with autism spectrum disorder, speech stimuli produce reduced left inferior frontal gyrus and superior temporal gyrus activation, while song perception produces greater activation relative to typically developing controls.

    “in a study comparing the perception of language versus songs in children with ASD, reduced activation was observed in the left IFG and STG for speech stimuli, but greater activation was observed during song perception relative to TD controls (Sharda et al., 2014).”
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    Premisecitation

    A related model suggests that individuals with autism spectrum disorder may have greater variability in behaviors and perceptions, related to variability in neural response patterns.

    “A related model to the predictive coding concept is grounded in reliability, and suggests that those with ASD may have greater variability (i.e., less reliability) in their behaviors and perceptions, and that these changes in reliability are related to changes in the variability of neural response patterns (Perez Velazquez and Galan, 2013).”
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    Premisecitation

    The temporal binding hypothesis proposes that synchronization of high-frequency gamma oscillations is impacted in autism spectrum disorder.

    “This hypothesis proposes that the processes used to synchronize activity within neural networks, specifically synchronization of high-frequency gamma oscillations, are impacted in ASD.”
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    • cites Brock et al., 2002

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    Premisecitation

    Children with autism spectrum disorder show reduced superior temporal sulcus responses to voices but similar responses to non-vocal environmental sounds compared with typically developing children.

    “children with ASD showed reduced responses in the STS (an area of robust activation voices in TD individuals) in response to a social auditory stimulus (voice), but similar responses to their TD counterparts with non-vocal (environmental) sounds (Gervais et al., 2004).”
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    Premisecitation

    In a visual change detection task, adults with autism spectrum disorder performed at the same level as typically developing adults but showed greater bilateral occipital activity and decreased frontal activity.

    “In a visual change detection task, adults with ASD performed at the same level as adults with TD, but showed greater activity in bilateral occipital cortex, but decreased activity in frontal (superior and middle frontal gyri bilaterally) cortex (Clery et al., 2013).”
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    Premisereasoning

    Resting-state fMRI is a method of choice in ASD because it does not entail a task and avoids practical problems such as task compliance.

    “One of the imaging methods of choice in ASD has been resting state fMRI (i.e., spontaneous, non task-evoked activity; Biswal et al., 1997), because it does not entail a task and hence is not fraught with some of the practical problems seen with more traditional task-based fMRI studies (most notable task compliance).”
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    • cites Biswal et al., 1997 source

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    Premisecitation

    Individuals with ASD show stronger responses to high spatial frequency stimuli and weaker responses to low spatial frequency stimuli.

    “Individuals with ASD show stronger responses to high spatial frequency stimuli, but weaker responses to low spatial frequency stimuli (Vlamings et al., 2010).”
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    Interpretationcitation

    This greater activation was interpreted as reflecting additional effort required for individuals with autism spectrum disorder to intuit mental states.

    “interpreted as reflecting the additional effort required for individuals with ASD to intuit mental states (Wang et al., 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wang et al., 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both adolescents with ASD and typically developing peers show greater activation in multisensory than unisensory conditions.

    “Although both teens with ASD and their TD peers showed greater activation in the multisensory condition compared to the unisensory condition”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Doyle-Thomas et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    EEG studies have been most heavily applied in the auditory domain.

    “Studies using EEG have been most heavily applied in the auditory domain (for a review see Marco et al. (2011)).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Marco et al. (2011) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Certain kinds of data scrubbing in resting-state fMRI artificially increase short-range connectivity and decrease long-range connectivity.

    “certain kinds of data scrubbing have been shown to artificially increase short-range connectivity and decrease long range connectivity (Gotts et al., 2013)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gotts et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    EEG has high temporal fidelity, allowing assessment of the processing stage at which atypical sensory processing occurs.

    “EEG studies also have the benefit of high temporal fidelity, allowing an experimenter to assess at which processing stage atypical sensory processing takes place.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: EEG studies also have the benefit of high temporal fidelity, allowing an experimenter to assess at which processing stage atypical sensory processing takes place.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Synchronization of activity through oscillatory activity has been proposed to facilitate the binding of information across perceptual and cognitive processes.

    “This synchronization of activity through oscillatory activity has been proposed to facilitate the binding of information across a number of perceptual and cognitive processes (Basar et al., 1999; Herrmann et al., 2015; Klimesch, 1999; Pulvermuller et al., 1997).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Basar et al., 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Herrmann et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Klimesch, 1999 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    ASD is a connectivity disorder in which observed deficits arise from poorly connected neural networks, with nodes unable to effectively transfer and integrate information.

    “one of ideas strongly based in neuroimaging data is that it is a connectivity disorder. That is, the observed deficits in ASD arise from poorly connected neural networks (Hughes, 2007), with nodes unable to effectively transfer and integrate information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hughes, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    EEG studies are relatively practical in ASD populations because they do not require the same stillness or exposure to loud scanning noises as fMRI.

    “EEG studies are relatively practical in this population; unlike fMRI, EEG does not require the same levels of stillness or exposure to loud scanning noises, which can be quite a challenge, particularly in children with ASD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: EEG studies are relatively practical in this population; unlike fMRI, EEG does not require the same levels of stillness or exposure to loud scanning noises, which can be quite a challenge, particularly in children with ASD.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework focuses on specific characteristics or phenotypic traits that may be shared across conditions but grounded in a common neurobiological process.

    “This Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework, advocated by the National Institutes of Mental Health (Insel et al., 2010), focuses on specific characteristics or phenotypic traits that may be shared across conditions but that may be grounded in a common neurobiological process.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Insel et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    These perceptual differences in ASD are linked to changes in latency and in the networks recruited to support perceptual processing.

    “These perceptual differences were linked to changes in latency as well as in the networks recruited to support the perceptual processing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Russo et al., 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sensory issues may play an important and underappreciated role in domains of dysfunction such as social communication in ASD.

    “these sensory issues may play an important and underappreciated role in domains of dysfunction such as social communication”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Recent emphases in psychiatric research have advocated a shift away from strict diagnostic criteria toward a dimensional-based perspective.

    “recent emphases in psychiatric research have advocated a shift away from a slavish adherence to strict diagnostic criteria and have instead suggested a more nuanced dimensional-based perspective toward elucidating the mechanistic underpinnings of psychiatric disease.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Insel et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Autism and schizophrenia may represent opposing ends of a continuum of self-representation, with autism characterized by greater weighting of self and schizophrenia by greater weighting of factors beyond the self.

    “autism and schizophrenia may represent opposing ends of a continuum of self-representation, and in which the former is characterized by greater weighting of self (versus other) and the latter is characterized by a greater weighting of factors beyond the self (and thus the propensity to hallucinations, etc.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Eicher and Gruen, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wible, 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

57 of 57

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Little fMRI work has examined multisensory networks and integration in ASD.

    “Surprisingly little work has been done to examine multisensory networks and multisensory integration using fMRI in individuals with ASD.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Oscillations at different EEG frequency bands reflect the brain's ability to coordinate communication across separate neuronal populations.

    “In general, oscillations at different frequency bands observed in EEG are thought to reflect the ability of the brain to coordinate the communication of information across separate populations of neurons.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Sensory integration therapy (SIT) is one of the most commonly employed approaches used in ASD treatment and therapy.

    “although sensory integration therapy (SIT) is one of the most commonly employed approaches used in ASD treatment and therapy”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    SIT is strongly founded in the subjective judgments of the occupational therapists administering the training.

    “it is strongly founded in the subjective judgments of the occupational therapists administering the training.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    SIT training is based on a different conceptual foundation than the one presented, emphasizing exposure to a wide array of sensory information to improve integration with cognitive representations.

    “SIT training is based on a somewhat different conceptual foundation than that presented above, with the major emphasis being exposure to a wide array of sensory information in an effort to improve how this information is integrated with cognitive representations.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is now increased recognition and appreciation for a role for sensory dysfunction in the context of ASD.

    “Although there is now increased recognition and appreciation for a role for sensory dysfunction in the context of ASD”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Work on sensory dysfunction in ASD is still in its earliest stages.

    “this work is still in its earliest stages”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A growing number of studies have begun to examine sensory processing in ASD.

    “While a growing number of studies have begun to examine sensory processing in ASD”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    These studies often continue to focus on a single task or small subset of tasks within a specific sensory modality.

    “they often continue to focus on a single task or small subset of tasks within a specific sensory modality.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Little has been done to bridge across genotype-phenotype, imaging, and sensory areas in ASD.

    “little has been done to bridge across these three areas”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Even less has been done to incorporate sensory features and sensory networks into these analyses.

    “even less has been done to incorporate sensory features and sensory networks into these analyses.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Autism and schizophrenia each have elements of a disturbed sense of self.

    “each disorder has elements of a disturbed sense of self”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many resting state fMRI studies are plagued with interpretational confounds.

    “Unfortunately, many resting state fMRI studies are plagued with interpretational confounds.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Motion can spuriously increase correlations between areas because movement across the head is correlated.

    “Motion can spuriously increase correlations between areas because movement across the head is correlated.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Efforts to reduce the effects of motion can actually introduce artifacts into the data.

    “these efforts to reduce the effects of motion can actually introduce artifacts into the data.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    EEG studies are relatively practical in this population; unlike fMRI, EEG does not require the same levels of stillness or exposure to loud scanning noises, which can be quite a challenge, particularly in children with ASD.

    “EEG studies are relatively practical in this population; unlike fMRI, EEG does not require the same levels of stillness or exposure to loud scanning noises, which can be quite a challenge, particularly in children with ASD.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    EEG studies also have the benefit of high temporal fidelity, allowing an experimenter to assess at which processing stage atypical sensory processing takes place.

    “EEG studies also have the benefit of high temporal fidelity, allowing an experimenter to assess at which processing stage atypical sensory processing takes place.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    EEG studies of auditory processing in ASD have provided conflicting results.

    “these studies have provided conflicting results.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Studies of auditory evoked potentials (AEP) have also produced disparate results.

    “Studies of auditory evoked potentials (AEP), reflecting the processing of sound in auditory cortical regions, have also produced disparate results.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Very little work has been done to examine evoked responses to touch with EEG.

    “Very little work has been done to examine evoked responses to touch with EEG.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Although little consensus exists as to the precise neurobiological substrates impacted in ASD (likely a result, at least in part, of the marked heterogeneity of the disorder).

    “Although little consensus exists as to the precise neurobiological substrates impacted in ASD (likely a result, at least in part, of the marked heterogeneity of the disorder)”
21 of 21

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Toe walking is embedded in a broader phenotype of sensory-behavioral dysregulation.

    “The correlation between TW and higher BAMBI scores further supports the hypothesis that TW is embedded in a broader phenotype of sensory–behavioral dysregulation [42].”

    From The Prevalence and Clinical Significance of Toe Walking in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Cross-Sectional Study in an Italian Pediatric Sample (2025) · cites this paper as [42]

    Section 2 describes sensory differences across multiple modalities in autism and links sensory processing to other ASD symptoms. The paper does not connect toe walking to that broader pattern or discuss BAMBI scores; the reported correlation is the citing authors’ own finding. (LLM, conf=0.83)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Brunelle, 2009, Autism and brain imaging, Bull. Acad. Natl. Med., 193, 287

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Baum, S. H., Stevenson, R. A., & Wallace, M. T.
Affiliations
  • Vanderbilt University (US)
  • University of Toronto (CA)
Corresponding author
Wallace, Mark T.
ORCID
Venue
Progress in Neurobiology
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2015-11
Volume
134
Pages
140-160
ISSN
0301-0082 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.09.007
PMC
PMC4730891
OpenAlex
W1921335093
Semantic Scholar
bd3f2ce4b8c9916fe7428f0c4fffca27aeefebee
Cited by
370
References
365
Citations by year
2026: 19 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 2
FWCI
2.75
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Progress in Neurobiology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
  • Scholarship@Western (Western University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Funders
  • Wallace Foundation (DC010927, CA183492, HD83211)
  • Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Multisensory perception and integration
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetics and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Keywords
autism spectrum disorder, sensory processing, multisensory integration, multisensory processing, social communication, perceptual representation
MeSH terms
Autism Spectrum Disorder, Animals, Brain, Humans, Perception, Perceptual Disorders

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Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

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