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Cited by 511Education Discipline and InequalityBehavioral and Psychological StudiesEarly Childhood Education and Development

Brief intervention to encourage empathic discipline cuts suspension rates in half among adolescents

Open access
Okonofua, Jason A., Paunesku, David, Walton, Gregory M.·2016·Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
DOI 10.1073/pnas.1523698113PMC PMC4868443
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Abstract

Significance: There is increasing concern about rising discipline citations in K–12 schooling and a lack of means to reduce them. Predominant theories characterize this problem as the result of punitive discipline policies (e.g., zero-tolerance policies), teachers’ lack of interpersonal skills, or students’ lack of self-control or social–emotional skills. By contrast, the present research examined teachers’ mindsets about discipline. A brief intervention aimed at encouraging an empathic mindset about discipline halved student suspension rates over an academic year. This intervention, an online exercise, can be delivered at near-zero marginal cost to large samples of teachers and students. These findings could mark a paradigm shift in society’s understanding of the origins of and remedies for discipline problems.

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Crossref · 10.1073/pnas.1523698113

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  • Students with a history of suspensions were less likely to receive an out-of-school suspension and felt more respected by teachers who had received a brief intervention compared to students whose teachers were in the control group.

    “Students with a history of suspensions were less likely to receive an OSS and felt more respected by teachers who had received a brief intervention compared to the students whose teachers were in the control group (Okonofua et al., 2016).”

    From The Impact of Restorative Practices on the Use of Out-of-School Suspensions: Results from a Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial (2023) · cites this paper as Okonofua et al., 2016

    The paper’s Experiment 3 results (page not available in our copy) report lower suspension rates for previously suspended students whose math teachers received the intervention (29.4% versus 51.2%) and higher perceived respect (mean 4.70 versus 3.85). The paper calls the outcome a suspension, but does not establish in these passages that it was specifically an out-of-school suspension (OSS). (LLM, conf=0.85)

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  • Teachers and administrators may be less reluctant to suspend students who already have a suspension history, particularly Black students, who are especially affected by implicit racial bias.

    “Teachers and administrations may be less reluctant to issue suspensions to students who already have a track record of suspensions (Blakely & Woodward, 2000) and especially to already-suspended Black students—a group particularly impacted by implicit racial bias (Okonofua et al., 2016).”

    From The Impact of Restorative Practices on the Use of Out-of-School Suspensions: Results from a Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial (2023) · cites this paper as Okonofua et al., 2016

    The Experiment 3 results report higher suspension rates for African American and Latino students and, separately, for students with prior suspensions (page not available in our copy). They do not establish a particular risk for previously suspended Black students or identify implicit racial bias as the cause. The broader claim about teachers and administrators issuing repeat suspensions is attached to a different citation. (LLM, conf=0.83)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Prior suspensions may damage trust and respect between students and teachers and can trigger a cycle of misconduct and further suspensions.

    “Prior suspensions may lead to a breakdown of trust and respect for the teacher and can trigger a vicious cycle of misconduct and suspensions (Okonofua et al., 2016; Rosenbaum, 2020).”

    From The Impact of Restorative Practices on the Use of Out-of-School Suspensions: Results from a Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial (2023) · cites this paper as Okonofua et al., 2016

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Cites

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Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Richardson DR, Hammock GS, Smith SM, Gardner W, Signo M (1994) Empathy as a cognitive inhibitor of interpersonal aggression. Aggress Behav 20(4):275-289.

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Authors
Okonofua, J. A., Paunesku, D., & Walton, G. M.
Affiliations
Stanford University (US)
Corresponding author
Okonofua, Jason A.
ORCID
Venue
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Publisher
National Academy of Sciences
Published
2016-04-25
Volume
113
Issue
19
Pages
5221-5226
ISSN
  • 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
  • 1091-6490
DOI
10.1073/pnas.1523698113
PMC
PMC4868443
OpenAlex
W2343153788
Cited by
510
References
32
Citations by year
2026: 89 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 127 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 65 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 8
FWCI
112.44
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › Education Discipline and Inequality
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
  • Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords
school suspension, student discipline, teacher mindset, teacher-student relationship, student misbehavior, online intervention, junior high school students, student respect, at-risk students, brief intervention
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Psychology, Adolescent, Empathy, Extraversion, Psychological, Faculty, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Juvenile Delinquency, Male, Personality, Social Behavior, Social Perception, Social Support, Students, United States, Self Efficacy

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