Cited by 180Cognitive Abilities and TestingDementia and Cognitive Impairment ResearchAging and Gerontology Research

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Influence of young adult cognitive ability and additional education on later-life cognition

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Kremen, William S., Beck, Asad, Elman, Jeremy A., Gustavson, Daniel E., Reynolds, Chandra A., Tu, Xin M., Sanderson-Cimino, Mark E., Panizzon, Matthew S., Vuoksimaa, Eero, Toomey, Rosemary, Fennema-Notestine, Christine, Hagler, Donald J., Fang, Bin, Dale, Anders M., Lyons, Michael J., Franz, Carol E.·2019·Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

DOI 10.1073/pnas.1811537116PMC PMC6369818

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Abstract

How and when education improves cognitive capacity is an issue of profound societal importance. Education and later-life education-related factors, such as occupational complexity and engagement in cognitive-intellectual activities, are frequently considered indices of cognitive reserve, but whether their effects are truly causal remains unclear. In this study, after accounting for general cognitive ability (GCA) at an average age of 20 y, additional education, occupational complexity, or engagement in cognitive-intellectual activities accounted for little variance in late midlife cognitive functioning in men age 56–66 ( n = 1009). Age 20 GCA accounted for 40% of variance in the same measure in late midlife and approximately 10% of variance in each of seven cognitive domains. The other factors each accounted for <1% of the variance in cognitive outcomes. The impact of these other factors likely reflects reverse causation—namely, downstream effects of early adult GCA. Supporting that idea, age 20 GCA, but not education, was associated with late midlife cortical surface area ( n = 367). In our view, the most parsimonious explanation of our results, a meta-analysis of the impact of education, and epidemiologic studies of the Flynn effect is that intellectual capacity gains due to education plateau in late adolescence/early adulthood. Longitudinal studies with multiple cognitive assessments before completion of education would be needed to confirm this speculation. If cognitive gains reach an asymptote by early adulthood, then strengthening cognitive reserve and reducing later-life cognitive decline and dementia risk may really begin with improving educational quality and access in childhood and adolescence.

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Authors: Kremen, W. S., Beck, A., Elman, J. A., Gustavson, D. E., Reynolds, C. A., Tu, X. M., Sanderson-Cimino, M. E., Panizzon, M. S., Vuoksimaa, E., Toomey, R., Fennema-Notestine, C., Hagler, D. J., Fang, B., Dale, A. M., Lyons, M. J., & Franz, C. E.
Affiliations: University of California San Diego (US)
San Diego State University (US)
University of California, Riverside (US)
Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093;
University of Helsinki (FI)
Boston University (US)
ORCID: Kremen, William S.
Beck, Asad
Elman, Jeremy A.
Gustavson, Daniel E.
Reynolds, Chandra A.
Tu, Xin M.
Panizzon, Matthew S.
Vuoksimaa, Eero
Toomey, Rosemary
Fennema-Notestine, Christine
Hagler, Donald J.
Dale, Anders M.
Lyons, Michael J.
Franz, Carol E.
Venue: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Publisher: National Academy of Sciences
Published: 2019-01-22
Volume: 116
Issue: 6
Pages: 2021-2026
ISSN: 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
1091-6490
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1811537116
PMC: PMC6369818
OpenAlex: W2913301193
Cited by: 180
References: 61
Citations by year: 2026: 18 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 9
FWCI: 23.51
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.pnas.org/site/aboutpnas/licenses.xhtml (vor, 181 d)
Locations: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja (submittedVersion)
Funders: HHS | NIH | National Institute on Aging (AG050595, AG022381, AG022982, AG046413, AG047903, AG059329)
Academy of Finland | Biotieteiden ja Ympäristön Tutkimuksen Toimikunta (314639)
Vainio Foundation (No number)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Keywords: general intelligence, additional education, cognitive reserve, later-life cognition, occupational complexity, reverse causality, cortical surface area, Flynn effect, cognitive decline, dementia risk, educational quality
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Aged, Cognition, Cognition Disorders, Dementia, Education, Humans, Life Style, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Young Adult, Cognitive Reserve, Cognitive Dysfunction

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Influence of young adult cognitive ability and additional education on later-life cognition

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