Overcoming COVID-19 vaccination resistance when alternative policies affect the dynamics of conformism, social norms, and crowding out
Open accessAbstract
Significance: We provide a model of policy effectiveness to explore the dynamics of vaccine resistance, drawing on our panel data set. The key ideas motivating the model are that voluntary citizen compliance is essential to policy success even under enforcement and that compliance preferences are endogenous, possibly crowded out by enforcement or enhanced due to conformism as more other citizens comply. Our panel data tracks intraindividual changes in trust in public institutions and vaccine acceptance, allowing inferences about causal effects. Our contribution is the integration of three features: 1) a model of interaction of public policy and citizen preferences, 2) using appropriate data, and 3) allowing insights on how to address the COVID-19 pandemic and other important societal challenges.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Negative reciprocity can be switched to positive reciprocity given sufficient cooperation levels.
“Our novel alternative to punishment builds on the reciprocal nature of the trust—the fact that people reciprocate voluntary trust68—as well as the conditional nature of human cooperation—the fact that negative reciprocity can be switched to positive reciprocity given sufficient cooperation levels44,69–71.”
From Cooperation without punishment (2023) · cites this paper as [71]
The Results section says that people in public-goods experiments may cooperate conditionally, contributing only if others do, and its vaccination model describes a tipping point after which more people prefer vaccination. These passages support cooperation or uptake increasing in response to others’ actions, but they do not establish that negative reciprocity switches to positive reciprocity at a sufficient level of cooperation. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Rogers, E. M., Singhal, A., & Quinlan, M. M. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203710753-35 · Cited by 37,557 · see citing works
Culture and the Evolutionary Process
Griesemer, J. R., Boyd, R. T., & Richerson, P. J. (1986) · Ornithological Applications · doi:10.2307/1367778 · Cited by 7,133 · see citing works
Attitudinal Effects of Mere Exposure
Zajonc, R. B. (1968) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0025848 · Cited by 6,745 · see citing works
Stanton, B. F., & Rogers, E. M. (1963) · Journal of Farm Economics · doi:10.2307/1235767 · Cited by 6,725 · see citing works
Econometric policy evaluation: A critique
Lucas, R. E. (1976) · Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy · doi:10.1016/s0167-2231(76)80003-6 · Cited by 6,110 · see citing works
A Theory of Psychological Reactance
Torrance, E. P., & Brehm, J. W. (1968) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1420824 · Cited by 4,755 · see citing works
Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority
Asch, S. E. (1956) · Psychological Monographs: General and Applied · doi:10.1037/h0093718 · Cited by 4,267 · see citing works
Hybrid Corn: An Exploration in the Economics of Technological Change
Griliches, Z. (1957) · Econometrica · doi:10.2307/1905380 · Cited by 3,377 · see citing works
Deci, E. L. (1975) · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-4446-9 · Cited by 2,911 · see citing works
Are people conditionally cooperative? Evidence from a public goods experiment
Fischbacher, U., Gächter, S., & Fehr, E. (2001) · Economics Letters · doi:10.1016/s0165-1765(01)00394-9 · Cited by 2,780 · see citing works
Bernheim, B. (1994) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/261957 · Cited by 2,067 · see citing works
Levi, M. (2019) · University of California Press eBooks · doi:10.1525/9780520909540 · Cited by 1,671 · see citing works
A Theory of Psychological Reactance
Mishler, E. G. (1968) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-196811000-00013 · Cited by 1,665 · see citing works
Ranking the effectiveness of worldwide COVID-19 government interventions
Haug, N., Geyrhofer, L., Londei, A., Dervic, E., Desvars-Larrive, A., Loreto, V., Pinior, B., Thurner, S., & Klimek, P. (2020) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-020-01009-0 · Cited by 1,412 · see citing works
The Evolution of Conformist Transmission and the Emergence of Between-Group Differences
Henrich, J., & Boyd, R. T. (1998) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s1090-5138(98)00018-x · Cited by 1,251 · see citing works
Falk, A., & Kosfeld, M. (2006) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.96.5.1611 · Cited by 1,043 · see citing works
Consent, Dissent, and Patriotism
Levi, M. (1997) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511609336 · Cited by 948 · see citing works
Economic Incentives and Social Preferences: Substitutes or Complements?
Bowles, S., & Polanía-Reyes, S. (2012) · Journal of Economic Literature · doi:10.1257/jel.50.2.368 · Cited by 918 · see citing works
Self-citationA study of some social factors in perception.
Sherif, M. (1935) · Cited by 896 · see citing works
The Possibility of Cooperation
Kollock, P., Argyle, M., Hinde, R. A., Groebel, J., & Elinor Ostrom, B. (1992) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2075554 · Cited by 857 · see citing works
Bowles, S. (2008) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1152110 · Cited by 833 · see citing works
Self-citationWhy Copy Others? Insights from the Social Learning Strategies Tournament
Rendell, L., Boyd, R., Cownden, D., Enquist, M., Eriksson, K., Feldman, M. W., Fogarty, L., Ghirlanda, S., Lillicrap, T., & Laland, K. N. (2010) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1184719 · Cited by 811 · see citing works
Detrimental effects of sanctions on human altruism
Fehr, E., & Rockenbach, B. (2003) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature01474 · Cited by 799 · see citing works
Bowles, S. (2003) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9781400829316 · Cited by 716 · see citing works
Self-citationMicroeconomics: BEHAVIOR, INSTITUTIONS AND EVOLUTION
kandel, D. (2020) · Cited by 661 · see citing works
Innovation Diffusion in Heterogeneous Populations: Contagion, Social Influence, and Social Learning
Young, H. P. (2009) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.99.5.1899 · Cited by 626 · see citing works
Falk, A., & Szech, N. (2013) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1231566 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
Trust as a Signal of a Social Norm and the Hidden Costs of Incentive Schemes
Sliwka, D. (2007) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.97.3.999 · Cited by 422 · see citing works
Populist politics and vaccine hesitancy in Western Europe: an analysis of national-level data
Kennedy, J. (2019) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckz004 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
THE POSSIBILITY OF COOPERATION
Jaylor, M. (2007) · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Остром, Э. (2000) · Scandinavian Political Studies · doi:10.1111/1467-9477.00028 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Coevolution of farming and private property during the early Holocene
Bowles, S., & Choi, J.-K. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1212149110 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Self-citationThe influence of altruism on influenza vaccination decisions
Shim, E., Chapman, G. B., Townsend, J. P., & Galvani, A. P. (2012) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2012.0115 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Vaccination as a social contract
Korn, L., BOHM, R. M., Meier, N. W., & Betsch, C. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1919666117 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
State Capacity, Reciprocity, and the Social Contract
Besley, T. J. (2020) · Econometrica · doi:10.3982/ecta16863 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Schmelz, K. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2016385118 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Self-citationCombining visual and verbal information in an impression-formation task.
Lampel, A. K., & Anderson, N. H. (1968) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0025716 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Vaccinating to Help Ourselves and Others
Vietri, J., Li, M., Galvani, A. P., & Chapman, G. B. (2011) · Medical Decision Making · doi:10.1177/0272989x11427762 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Lepper, M. R., Sagotsky, G., Dafoe, J. L., & Greene, D. (1982) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.51 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Screening, Competition, and Job Design: Economic Origins of Good Jobs
Bartling, B., Fehr, E., & Schmidt, K. M. (2012) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.102.2.834 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Multiple types of motives don't multiply the motivation of West Point cadets
Wrzesniewski, A., Schwartz, B., Cong, X., Kane, M., Omar, A., & Kolditz, T. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1405298111 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Distinguished Lecture on Economics in Government: Public Policy, Values, and Consciousness
Aaron, H. (1994) · The Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.8.2.3 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Hidden costs of control: four repetitions and an extension
Ziegelmeyer, A., Schmelz, K., & Ploner, M. (2011) · Experimental Economics · doi:10.1007/s10683-011-9302-8 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationBehavioral conformity in games with many players
WOODERS, M. H., Cartwright, E. J., & Selten, R. (2006) · Games and Economic Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.geb.2005.09.006 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Gallus, J., Reiff, J. S., Kamenica, E., & Fiske, A. P. (2021) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000336 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Vaccine hesitancy as self-determination: an Israeli perspective
Velan, B. (2016) · Israel Journal of Health Policy Research · doi:10.1186/s13584-016-0071-x · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Demand for Alcohol Consumption in Russia and Its Implication for Mortality
Yakovlev, E. (2018) · American Economic Journal Applied Economics · doi:10.1257/app.20130170 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The Moral Economy: Why Good Incentives Are No Substitutefor Good Citizens (excerpts)
Bowles, S. (2016) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2016-4-100-128 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationSymposium on Health Care Reform
Newhouse, J. P. (1994) · The Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.8.3.3 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
The hidden benefits of abstaining from control
Burdín, G., Halliday, S. D., & Landini, F. (2018) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2017.12.018 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Issues Every Plan to Reform Health Care Financing Must Confront
Aaron, H. J. (1994) · The Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.8.3.31 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
State Coercion and Control Aversion: Evidence from an Internet Study in East and West GermanyPreprint
Schmelz, K., & Ziegelmeyer, A. (2020) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationDemand for Alcohol Consumption and Implication for Mortality: Evidence from RussiaPreprint
Yakovlev, E. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2873424 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Incentives for Conformity and AnticonformityPreprint
Dvorak, F., Fischbacher, U., & Schmelz, K. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3754595 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationSchmelz, K., & Bowles, S. (2021) · GESIS Data Archive · doi:10.7802/2272 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
4 of the 59 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- [30]H. Aaron, Public policy, values, and consciousness. J. Econ. Perspect. 8, 3– 21 (1994). 10136764
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Designing for Dissemination and Sustainability to Promote Equitable Impacts on Health
Kwan, B. M., Brownson, R. C., Glasgow, R. E., Morrato, E. H., & Luke, D. A. (2022) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-052220-112457 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Social capital and the spread of covid-19: Insights from european countries
Bartscher, A. K., Seitz, S., Siegloch, S., Slotwinski, M., & Wehrhöfer, N. (2021) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2021.102531 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
The Effectiveness of Interventions for Increasing COVID-19 Vaccine Uptake: A Systematic Review
Batteux, E., Mills, F., Jones, L. F., Symons, C., & Weston, D. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10030386 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Beyond collective intelligence: Collective adaptation
Galešić, M., Barkoczi, D., Berdahl, A. M., Biro, D., Carbone, G., Giannoccaro, I., Goldstone, R. L., González, C., Kandler, A., Kao, A. B., et al. (2023) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2022.0736 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Preferences for COVID-19 vaccine distribution strategies in the US: A discrete choice survey
Eshun‐Wilson, I., Mody, A., Tram, K. H., Bradley, C., Sheve, A., Fox, B., Thompson, V. L. S., & Geng, E. H. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0256394 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Effective incentives for increasing COVID-19 vaccine uptake
Salalι, G. D., & Uysal, M. S. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721004013 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Schmelz, K., & Bowles, S. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2118721119 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationAhorsu, D. K., Lin, C., Alimoradi, Z., Griffiths, M. D., Chen, H., Broström, A., Timpka, T., & Pakpour, A. H. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10010122 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Badman, R. P., Wang, A. X., Skrodzki, M., Cho, H.-C., Aguilar‐Lleyda, D., Shiono, N., Yoo, S. B. M., Chiang, Y.-S., & Akaishi, R. (2022) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs12060170 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Leask, J., Seale, H., Williams, J. H., Kaufman, J., Wiley, K. E., Mahimbo, A., Clark, K. K., Danchin, M. H., & Attwell, K. (2021) · The Medical Journal of Australia · doi:10.5694/mja2.51269 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Giorgio, A. D., Kuvačić, G., Maleš, D., Vecchio, I., Tornali, C., Ishac, W., Ramaci, T., Barattucci, M., & Milavić, B. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10030481 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
The institutional origins of vaccines distrust: Evidence from former-Soviet countries
Costa‐Font, J., Hombrados, J. G., & Nicińska, A. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0282420 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Gerotziafas, G., Catalano, M., Theodorou, Y., Dreden, P. V., Maréchal, V., Spyropoulos, A. C., Carter, C., Jabeen, N., Harenberg, J., Elalamy, I., et al. (2021) · Thrombosis and Haemostasis · doi:10.1055/a-1535-8807 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Yeh, T., & Contreras, G. P. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.08.08.21261768 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Colautti, L., Cancer, A., Magenes, S., Antonietti, A., & Iannello, P. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19031189 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Does social influence affect COVID-19 vaccination intention among the unvaccinated?
Salalι, G. D., Uysal, M. S., Bozyel, G., Akpınar, E., & Aksu, A. (2022) · Evolutionary Human Sciences · doi:10.1017/ehs.2022.29 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Analogies for modeling belief dynamics.
Olsson, H., & Galesic, M. (2024) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2024.07.001 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Schröder, T., Speer, A., Sachweh, P., & Groh-Samberg, O. (2022) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2022.989831 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Government Reactions, Citizens’ Responses, and COVID-19 around the World
Reiersen, J., Romero-Hernández, M., & Adán-González, R. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19095667 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Chen, Q., Zhang, Y., & Evans, R. D. (2024) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.104238 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Understanding COVID-19 Vaccine Confidence in People Living with HIV: A pan-Canadian Survey
Costiniuk, C. T., Singer, J., Needham, J., Yang, Y., Qian, H., Chambers, C., Burchell, A. N., Samji, H., Colmegna, I., del Canto, S., et al. (2023) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-023-03991-8 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Wong, C. H. L., Zhong, C. C., Chung, V. C., Nilsén, P., Wong, E. L., & Yeoh, E. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10050764 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Vaccination as personal public-good provision
Reddinger, J. L., Charness, G., & Levine, D. I. (2024) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2024.06.015 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Cooperation without punishment
Battu, B., & Rahwan, T. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-28372-y · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Economic Considerations in COVID ‐19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Refusal: A Survey of the Literature*
Rawlings, L., Looi, J. C., & Robson, S. (2022) · Economic Record · doi:10.1111/1475-4932.12667 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Farkhad, B. F., & Jung, H. (2023) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916231178708 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Deuteration for Metabolic Stabilization of SARS-CoV-2 Inhibitors GC373 and Nirmatrelvir
Oers, T. J. V., Piercey, A., Belovodskiy, A., Reiz, B., Donnelly, B. L., Vuong, W., Lemieux, M. J., Nieman, J. A., Auclair, K., & Vederas, J. C. (2023) · Organic Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.orglett.3c02140 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Adverse effects of control? Evidence from a field experiment
Herz, H., & Zihlmann, C. (2024) · Experimental Economics · doi:10.1007/s10683-024-09823-3 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
How Mass surveillance Crowds Out Installations of COVID-19 Contact Tracing Applications
Toch, E., & Ayalon, O. (2023) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3579491 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Determinants of COVID-19 vaccination worldwide: WORLDCOV, a retrospective observational study
Peano, A., Politano, G. M. M., & Gianino, M. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1128612 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Fukai, T., Kawata, K., & Nakabayashi, M. (2023) · BMC Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1186/s12879-023-08558-5 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Determinants of people’s motivations to approach COVID-19 vaccination centers
Keser, C., & Rau, H. A. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-30244-4 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Social influence makes outlier opinions in online reviews offer more helpful information
Yang, K., Fujisaki, I., & Ueda, K. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-35953-4 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The moral source of collective irrationality during COVID-19 vaccination campaigns
Voinea, C., Marin, L., & Vică, C. (2023) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2022.2164264 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
I Am Better Than Others: Waste Management Policies and Self-Enhancement Bias
Zhao, Y., Chen, R., Yabe, M., Han, B., & Liu, P. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su132313257 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Gu, W., Liu, Y., Chen, Q., Wang, J., Che, X., Du, J., Zhang, X., Xu, Y., Zhang, X., Jiang, W., et al. (2023) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/21645515.2023.2270325 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Wong, I. O. L., Wong, C., Mak, N., Dai, A., Xiao, J., Wu, P., Ni, M. Y., Liao, Q., & Cowling, B. J. (2024) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2024.04.035 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
An empirically based dynamic approach to sustainable climate policy design
Schmelz, K., & Bowles, S. (2025) · Nature Sustainability · doi:10.1038/s41893-025-01715-5 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationIncentives crowd out voluntary cooperation: evidence from gift-exchange experiments
Gächter, S., Kaiser, E., & Königstein, M. (2025) · Experimental Economics · doi:10.1017/eec.2024.14 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Stefkovics, Á., Krekó, P., & Koltai, J. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117149 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Chu, L., Grafton, R. Q., & Kompas, T. (2021) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0000499 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The hidden costs of imposing minimum contributions to a global public good
Abraham, D., Glejtková, K., & Krčál, O. (2024) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108346 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Barteit, S., Hachaturyan, V., Beleites, F., Kuhn, T. E., Favaretti, C., Adam, M., & Bärnighausen, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.939227 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Pedrana, A. E., Bowring, A. L., Heath, K., Thomas, A. J., Wilkinson, A. L., Fletcher, S., Saich, F., Munari, S. C., Oliver, J. R., Merner, B., et al. (2024) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2023-076907 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Scheckelhoff, K., Ejaz, A., & Erovenko, I. V. (2025) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math13142270 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
How goal framing and temporal distance influence the effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccine persuasion
Nan, L. I. U., Xinru, A. N., Aimei, L. I., Pei, L. I. U., & Hailong, S. U. N. (2022) · Acta Psychologica Sinica · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1041.2022.01532 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Crisis experience and the deep roots of COVID-19 vaccination preferences
Borisova, E., Gründler, K., Hackenberger, A., Harter, A., Potrafke, N., & Schoors, K. J. L. (2023) · European Economic Review · doi:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2023.104607 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Relief After COVID-19 Vaccination: A Doubtful or Evident Outcome?
Al‐Hanawi, M. K., Alshareef, N., & El-Sokkary, R. H. (2022) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2021.800040 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Asri, A., Asri, V., Renerte, B., Föllmi-Heusi, F., Leuppi, J. D., Muser, J. M., Nüesch, R., Schuler, D., & Fischbacher, U. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0268775 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
No-vaxxers are different in public good games
Basili, M., Muscillo, A., & Pin, P. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-22390-y · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Turning the world on its head: The virus that disrupted “business as usual”
Guindi, F. E. (2022) · Economic Anthropology · doi:10.1002/sea2.12237 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Long-Term Cultural Barriers to Sustaining Collective Effort in Vaccination Against COVID-19Preprint
Vu, T. V. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3943011 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Integrating norms into the logic of energy and environmental policymaking
Hirsch, K. C. P., Wong‐Parodi, G., & Statler, A. (2022) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2022.102828 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Brisbois, M., Schmitz, M., Vansteenkiste, M., Yzerbyt, V. Y., Oost, P. V., Morbée, S., Waterschoot, J., Luminet, O., den Bergh, O. V., Raemdonck, E., et al. (2024) · Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy · doi:10.1111/asap.12435 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Preparing for the Next Pandemic: Learning Lessons from the Recent Past
Elderd, B. D., Dallas, T., Foster, G., & Richards, R. L. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-93954-0_49-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Vaccine‐Preventable Diseases and Individual Behavior: Deterministic vs Stochastic Outcomes
Marsiglio, S., & Tolotti, M. (2025) · Journal of Public Economic Theory · doi:10.1111/jpet.70033 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Глазков, К. П. (2022) · Monitoring obŝestvennogo mneniâ: èkonomičeskie i socialʹnye peremeny · doi:10.14515/monitoring.2022.3.2110 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Early Humoral Responses of Hemodialysis Patients After Inactivated SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination
Zhao, W., Shi, R., Wang, P., He, J., Chen, Y., Feng, Y.-T., Pan, H., & Wang, D. (2022) · Journal of Inflammation Research · doi:10.2147/jir.s361621 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Influences of COVID-19 vaccination policy on students’ vaccine acceptance
Mthembu, T. G., Harrison, S., Botha, K., Britz, J., Katts, B., Millar, M., Sulliman, Z., & Zitha, V. (2023) · Health SA Gesondheid · doi:10.4102/hsag.v28i0.2265 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Rationing to avoid conflict: A centralized assignment problem
Nganmeni, Z., Pongou, R., Tchantcho, B., & Tondji, J. (2026) · Journal of Mathematical Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jmateco.2026.103289 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Hébert‐Dufresne, L., Ahn, Y., Allard, A., Colizza, V., Crothers, J. W., Dodds, P. S., Galesic, M., Ghanbarnejad, F., Gravel, D., Hammond, R. A., et al. (2025) · npj Complexity · doi:10.1038/s44260-025-00050-2 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Are Vaccinations Alone Enough to Curb the Dynamics of the COVID-19 Pandemic in the European Union?
Miłobędzki, P. (2022) · Econometrics · doi:10.3390/econometrics10020025 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Menggunakan 'Penta-Helix' untuk Menjembatani Reaksi Masyarakat Terhadap Vaksin Covid-19
Hasid, Z., Wijaya, A., Busari, A., & Erwin Kurniawan, A. (2022) · Jurnal Pengabdian Pada Masyarakat · doi:10.30653/002.202273.131 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Miconi, D., Levinsson, A., Kafi, M. A. H., Ngov, C., Santavicca, T., & Rousseau, C. (2024) · Transcultural Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/13634615241296293 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
COVID vaccination and social norms
Cook, J. A., Newberger, N., & Smalling, S. (2024) · Contemporary Economic Policy · doi:10.1111/coep.12663 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Pykälä, M., Dillion, D., & Galesic, M. (2026) · Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2024.0450 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Fairness with unequal productive skills among other-regarding individuals
Calo-Blanco, A. (2024) · The Journal of Economic Inequality · doi:10.1007/s10888-024-09635-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Dynamic and Heterogeneous Effects of COVID‐19 Vaccination Mandates in the USA
Nguyen, M., Hoang, V.-N. V., Nghiem, S. H., & Nguyen, T. L. A. (2024) · Health Economics · doi:10.1002/hec.4923 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Uncertainty in vaccination behavior: Social norms, network effects, and policy challenges
Tolotti, M., & Yépez, J. (2026) · Journal of Evolutionary Economics · doi:10.1007/s00191-026-00952-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Pimentel, R. G. R., & Ferreira, V. D. R. S. (2026) · Cadernos Gestão Pública e Cidadania · doi:10.12660/cgpc.v31.n4.92445 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Can Subsidy Policies Reduce Vaccine Hesitancy Under Social Learning?
Guo, F., Cao, E., & Li, H. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management · doi:10.1109/tem.2022.3204362 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Can health passport overcome political hurdles to COVID-19 vaccination?
François, A., Gergaud, O., & Noury, A. G. (2023) · European Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2023.102453 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Low, J. M., Khoo, E. J., Thong, M., Soo, C., Tran, A. P., Lee, L. Y., & Cheah, F. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1470345 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 Vaccine in a Nationwide Mass Vaccination Setting: A NotePreprint
Arbel, Y., Arbel, Y., Kerner, E., & Kerner, A. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1041208/v1
Impfpflichten, Anreize und die effiziente Nutzung von Coronaimpfstoffen
Stolpe, M. (2022) · Wirtschaftsdienst · doi:10.1007/s10273-022-3139-y
Social expectations and government incentives in Malaysia’s COVID-19 vaccine uptake
Aziz, N. I. A., Flanders, S., & Nungsari, M. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0275010
Schebesch, K. B., & Șoim, H. (2022) · Springer proceedings in business and economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-09421-7_16
高, 岭., 胡, 宝., & 唐, 昱. (2023) · Political Economy Quarterly · doi:10.26599/peo.2023.9310205
Rothe, C., & Nwaeburu, L. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-66081-2_10
Risk Seeking Attitudes Towards COVID-19 Vaccination and the Role of HCPs in Norway and Pakistan
Munir, W., & Bouder, F. E. (2023) · European Safety and Reliability Conference (ESREL) · doi:10.3850/978-981-18-8071-1_p737-cd
Risk Seeking Attitudes Towards COVID-19 Vaccination and the Role of HCPs in Norway and Pakistan
Munir, W., & Bouder, F. E. (2023) · European Safety and Reliability Conference (ESREL) · doi:10.3850/978-981-18-8071-1_p536-cd
Risk Seeking Attitudes towards COVID-19 Vaccination and the role of HCPs in Norway and Pakistan
Munir, W., & Bouder, F. E. (2023) · European Safety and Reliability Conference (ESREL) · doi:10.3850/978-981-18-8071-1_p709-cd
Ternovski, J., Jilke, S., Keppeler, F., & Vogel, D. (2023) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/k5uap
Asymptomatic Freedom, Resistance, and the ‘Anti-vaxxers’
Briggs, D., Telford, L., Lloyd, A., & Ellis, A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-41866-2_5
Using smartphones to study vaccination decisions in the wild
Girardini, N. A., Stopczynski, A., Baranov, O., Betsch, C., Brockmann, D., Lehmann, S., & BOHM, R. M. (2024) · PLOS Digital Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pdig.0000550
Rothe, C., & Nwaeburu, L. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-69700-9_10
Jelnov, A. (2025) · Theory and Decision · doi:10.1007/s11238-025-10041-3
Park, E. G., & Park, G. E. (2025) · Environment and Public Health Research · doi:10.59400/ephr1874
Yin, G., Jiang, Y., & Xie, Y. (2025) · International Social Science Journal · doi:10.1111/issj.12586
COVID-19 Vaccination Policy: The United States And China
Sari, I., Asriadi, A., Nurmandi, A., & Wahdaniyah, N. (2025) · Journal of Government and Civil Society · doi:10.31000/jgcs.v9i1.6743
Fukai, T., Kawata, K., & Nakabayashi, M. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26618107
What leads to vaccine compliance? Evidence from healthcare workers
Demichelis, A., Marini, M., Menicagli, D., Mancini, G., Bilancini, E., Panizza, F., Bellandi, T., Boncinelli, L., Pin, P., Galletti, G., et al. (2026) · Journal of Public Health Research · doi:10.1177/22799036251401950
遠山, 弘. (n.d.) · Institutional Repositories DataBase (IRDB)
Karpa, D. F., Pisareva, D., Scoggins, B., Durnev, N., & Rochlitz, M. (2026) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2026.101935
Mousoulidou, M., Damianou, N.-A., Christodoulou, A., Taxitari, L., & Zamba, K. (2026) · COVID · doi:10.3390/covid6070125
- Authors
- Schmelz, K., & Bowles, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Konstanz (DE)
- Santa Fe Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schmelz, Katrin
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2021-06-07
- Volume
- 118
- Issue
- 25
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC8237671
- OpenAlex
- W3168227353
- Cited by
- 98
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 11
- FWCI
- 11.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Santa Fe Institute
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (390681379, EXC 2035/1)
- Universität Konstanz
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Vaccine Coverage and Hesitancy
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Statistical and Nonlinear Physics › Opinion Dynamics and Social Influence
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Modeling and Simulation › COVID-19 epidemiological studies
- Keywords
- COVID-19 vaccination, vaccine hesitancy, vaccine acceptance, mandatory vaccination, voluntary vaccination, social norms, conformity, crowding out, public trust in government, herd immunity, policy effectiveness
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, COVID-19 Vaccines, Crowding, Health Policy, Humans, Motivation, Social Conformity, Vaccination, Models, Immunological, Social Norms
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review