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The Key Role of Anaplerosis and Cataplerosis for Citric Acid Cycle Function
Open accessAbstract
tricarboxylic acid cycle phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase phosphoenolpyruvate The oxidation of acetyl-CoA to CO2by the TCA1 cycle is the central process in energy metabolism. However, the TCA cycle also functions in biosynthetic pathways in which intermediates leave the cycle to be converted primarily to glucose, fatty acids, or non-essential amino acids. If TCA cycle anions are removed from the cycle they must be replaced to permit its continued function. This process is termed anaplerosis. Pyruvate carboxylase, which generates oxalacetate directly in the mitochondria, is the major anaplerotic enzyme. Conversely, 4- and 5-carbon intermediates enter the TCA cycle during the catabolism of amino acids. Because the TCA cycle cannot fully oxidize 4- and 5-carbon compounds, these intermediates must be removed from the cycle by a process termedcataplerosis. Cataplerosis may be linked to biosynthetic processes such as gluconeogenesis in the liver and kidney cortex, fatty acid synthesis in the liver, and glyceroneogenesis in adipose tissue. Cataplerotic enzymes present in many mammalian tissues include P-enolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), glutamate dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferase, and citrate lyase. In this review we have evaluated the roles of anaplerosis and cataplerosis in whole body metabolism. The expression anaplerotic sequences was a term used in biochemistry by Sir Hans Kornberg (1Kornberg H.L. Essays Biochem. 1966; 2: 1-31Crossref Scopus (359) Google Scholar) to describe a series of enzymatic reactions or pathways that replenish the pools of metabolic intermediates in the TCA cycle. These intermediates are critical for the functioning of the TCA cycle, the primary role of which is the oxidation of acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide. The pool of TCA cycle intermediates is sufficient to sustain the oxidative carbon flux over a fairly wide range, so that during high energy consumption (e.g. exercise) or during lower energy consumption (e.g. fasting), there is not a large change in the pool size of TCA intermediates (2Graham T.E. Gibala M.J. Richter E.A. Galbo H. Kiens B. Saltin B. Skeletal Muscle Metabolism in Exercise and Diabetes. Plenum Press, New York1998: 271-286Google Scholar). However, in several physiological states, there is a large influx (anaplerosis) of 4- and 5-carbon intermediates into the TCA cycle. Because the TCA cycle cannot act as a carbon sink, anaplerosis must be coupled with the exit of intermediates from the cycle via cataplerosis. The importance of anaplerotic reactions for cellular metabolism is thus apparent. However, the coupling of this process with cataplerosis and the roles that both pathways play in the regulation of amino acid, glucose, and fatty acid metabolism have not been emphasized to a sufficient extent. The terms anaplerosis and cataplerosis describe reciprocal and correlative reactions involved in the function of the TCA cycle. The enzymatic steps in these processes have long been known, but the overall concept of a linkage between anaplerosis and cataplerosis should be underscored, because the balance between these two processes controls the entry and exit of TCA cycle anions. Anaplerotic and cataplerotic reactions are involved in the ultimate disposal of all metabolic intermediates. The metabolic role of anaplerosis and cataplerosis in amino acid metabolism varies with specific organs and is dependent on the nutritional/metabolic status of the individual. During feeding, the intestine is an important site of catabolism of enterally derived amino acids, whereas in the starved state amino acid catabolism occurs primarily in the kidney, liver, and muscle. The catabolism of amino acids produces gluconeogenic or ketogenic precursors (Table I). The disposal of gluconeogenic anions in the TCA cycle employs anaplerotic and cataplerotic pathways for their terminal oxidation. The only known pathway for the terminal oxidation of leucine is through acetoacetate to acetyl-CoA and subsequent oxidation in the TCA cycle. However, other amino acids also have for their disposal alternate ketogenic pathways for terminal oxidation. Thus, the ketogenic amino acids from proteolysis can be terminally oxidized in muscle, whereas the gluconeogenic amino acids are dependent upon anaplerosis and cataplerosis for conversion to glucose in the liver and kidney before oxidation to CO2 and H2O.Table IMetabolic fates of amino acids in the TCA cycle1. Amino acids converted to pyruvate Alanine, serine, glycine, threonine, cysteine, tryptophan2. Amino acids converted to oxaloacetate Aspartate, asparagine3. Amino acids converted to α-ketoglutarate Glutamate, glutamine, proline, histidine, arginine4. Amino acids converted to fumarate Phenylalanine, tyrosine5. Amino acids converted to succinyl-CoA Methionine, isoleucine, valine6. Amino acids converted to acetyl-CoA Leucine, isoleucine, lysine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, threonine Open table in a new tab The first reaction of the TCA cycle,
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“Pyruvate, derived from glucose, lactate, and amino acid sources, can function as a major anaplerotic source of OAA through the activity of the mitochondrial enzyme pyruvate carboxylase (PC) (37).”
From Regulation and function of the mammalian tricarboxylic acid cycle (2023) · cites this paper as [37]
In the citing paper
“Cataplerosis of any TCA cycle intermediate requires compensatory input to sustain TCA cycle activity, a process termed “anaplerosis” (37).”
From Regulation and function of the mammalian tricarboxylic acid cycle (2023) · cites this paper as [37]
In the citing paper
“Among the mitochondrial functions that may be relevant for white adipose tissue function are the anaplerotic generation of metabolic intermediates for fatty acid synthesis and esterification (159), the maintenance of a robust pathway for the folding and secretion of high abundance circulating proteins such as adiponectin (160), and interactions between mitochondrial function and components of the”
From The role of mitochondria in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (2010) · cites this paper as [159]
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“In addition, the increase in plasma alpha-ketoglutarate levels suggests an anaplerotic effort to provide sufficient amino group acceptors for the early transamination of the excessive valine (Cole, 2015; Owen et al., 2002; Xiao et al., 2016).”
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Lipin Deficiency Impairs Diurnal Metabolic Fuel
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“The TCA cycle must be constantly replenished by carbon atoms, a process named anaplerosis [7].”
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“It also ignores the anabolic functions of mitochondria (5, 6) and the role of glutamine, another key nutrient avidly consumed by actively proliferating cells (7, 8).”
BackgroundTriheptanoin in Epilepsy and Beyond
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“In addition, glutamine, which is catabolized through glutaminolysis, will form glutamate, which is then converted in the mitochondria to alfa-ketoglutarate, an intermediate of the TCA cycle [28].”
BackgroundFunctional analysis of mitochondrial sirtuins in C. elegans and mammalian cells
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Asparagine availability is an essential limiting factor for poxvirus protein synthesisPreprint
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“Since anaplerosis feeds metabolites to the TCA cycle (Owen et al., 2002) in addition to glucose we performed a U-13C5 labeled glutamine targeted metabolomics, and the data shows that indeed on HKDC1 ablation there is a significant decrease in labelled TCA cycle metabolites upon HKDC1-KO (Fig 4G;…”
Method
Metadata
- Authors
- Owen, O. E., Kalhan, S. C., & Hanson, R. W.
- Affiliations
- MetroHealth Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Owen, Oliver E.
- ORCID
- Kalhan, Satish C.
- Venue
- Journal of Biological Chemistry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2002-08
- Volume
- 277
- Issue
- 34
- Pages
- 30409-30412
- ISSN
- 0021-9258 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2134294998
- Cited by
- 1,172
- References
- 21
- Citations by year
- 2026: 51 · 2025: 73 · 2024: 72 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 87 · 2021: 108 · 2020: 101 · 2019: 84 · 2018: 67 · 2017: 67 · 2016: 61 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 38
- FWCI
- 6.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Biological Chemistry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (DK-58620, R01DK058620)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD11089)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biochemistry › Biochemical Acid Research Studies
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Mitochondrial Function and Pathology
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Microbial metabolism and enzyme function
- Keywords
- anaplerosis, cataplerosis, TCA cycle, TCA cycle intermediates, pyruvate carboxylase, oxaloacetate, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, gluconeogenesis, fatty acid synthesis, glyceroneogenesis, amino acid catabolism, glutamate dehydrogenase
- MeSH terms
- Adipose Tissue, Amino Acids, Animals, Citric Acid Cycle, Gluconeogenesis, Glutamine, Humans, Intestine, Small, Kidney, Triglycerides, Muscle, Skeletal
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