Livelihood Change in Rural Zimbabwe over 20 Years

May combine two claims.

The mortality pattern reflects both an ageing population and exposure to HIV infection over the last two decades.

“This pattern reflects both an ageing population, but also one exposed over the last two decades to HIV infection, even if incidence has been declining in the past decade (Halperin et al., 2011).”

• cites Halperin et al., 2011 sourcePartly supported

  The “Trends in HIV Prevalence and Incidence and Sexual Behavior in Zimbabwe” section reports substantial HIV prevalence in the 1990s and declining incidence thereafter. The “Synthesis of Data” section also discusses estimated AIDS deaths. Neither section attributes a mortality pattern to population ageing, so that part of the claim is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

In 2006-2007, the main criteria for wealth were number of cattle owned, land size and crop outputs, good health, children's education, off-farm income (including remittances), farm equipment owned, ownership of 'modern gadgets', and hiring of farm labour.

“In 2006-2007, many of the criteria were the same, but there was a different emphasis.The main criteria were: number of cattle owned; land size and crop outputs; good health; children's education; off-farm income (including remittances); farm equipment owned; ownership of 'modern gadgets'; and hiring of farm labour.”

May combine two claims.

The data show a strong association between wealth rank and survey measures across the range of criteria, with ordering of ranks and survey data averages highly consistent.

“The data show a strong association between wealth rank and measures across the range of criteria.Ordering of ranks and survey data averages is highly consistent.”

May combine two claims.

In terms of field areas and crop production, there is a discontinuity between wealth rank 1 and others in 1986-1987 and between ranks 1 and 2 and others in 2006-2007.

“In terms of field areas and crop production, there is a discontinuity shown between wealth rank 1 and others in 1986-1987 and between ranks 1 and 2 and others in 2006-2007.”

May combine two claims.

The tracking data showed wide dispersal of next-generation secondary households, including abroad (8.1% South Africa, 1.2% Botswana, 1.7% UK), resettlement (5.2% before 2000, 6.9% after 2000), and other rural-rural migration (7.5%).

“The tracking data showed the wide dispersal of next-generation secondary households, including abroad in the diaspora, notably in South Africa (8.1%), Botswana (1.2%) and the UK (1.7%).Secondary households also took up resettlement opportunities, both before (5.2%) and after 2000 (6.9%), and some moved to other districts as part of informal rural-rural migrations (7.5%).”

May combine two claims.

Of 123 primary household members who died by 2006-2007, 53% reportedly died of HIV/AIDS-related illnesses, including eight primary household heads.

“Across all individuals identified as members of the primary households in 1986-1987, 123 people had died by 2006-2007, and of these 53 per cent had reportedly died of HIV/AIDS-related illnesses, including eight primary household heads (Mushongah, 2009: 150-151).”

• cites Mushongah, 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Overall, 36.4% of secondary households established rural homes close to their parents (32.9% with independent fields), and 32.9% established homes in Zimbabwean towns and cities without a rural home base.

“While overall 36.4 per cent of secondary households established rural homes close to their parents (32.9% with independent fields), a similar number (32.9%) had established homes in Zimbabwean towns and cities, without a rural home base.”

May combine two claims.

A transition to a lower wealth rank involved a death or extended illness of one of the household heads, particularly in five households where the household heads' spouses also fell ill and died.

“A transition to a lower rank (higher number) involved, for example, a death or extended illness of one of the household heads.This was particularly so in five households where the household heads' spouses also fell ill and subsequently died.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Retrospective biographical interviews accurately capture the timing and causes of livelihood changes over 20 years.

May combine two claims.

For secondary households, only wealth rank 1 households own significant assets (notably livestock), but this does not translate into crop production.

“Overall for primary households there is less of a skewed distribution of both production and assets in 2006-2007, although around a lower mean; while for secondary households it is only wealth rank 1 households which own significant assets (notably livestock), although this does not translate into crop production.”

May combine two claims.

Gardening was more associated with poorer groups in 1986-1987, while in 2006-2007 wealth ranks 1 and 2 earned more income from gardening.

“There have been some switches in focus too, with gardening, for example, being more associated with poorer groups in 1986-1987, while in 2006-2007 it was wealth ranks 1 and 2 who earned more income from gardening.”

May combine two claims.

For primary households, there is less skewed distribution of production and assets in 2006-2007 than in 1986-1987, although around a lower mean.

“Overall for primary households there is less of a skewed distribution of both production and assets in 2006-2007, although around a lower mean; while for secondary households it is only wealth rank 1 households which own significant assets (notably livestock), although this does not translate into crop production.”

May combine two claims.

Nearly 60% of households changed wealth rank over the 20-year period, representing substantial dynamism in wealth status.

“Thus in a period of 20 years, nearly 60 per cent of households had changed rank, representing a substantial dynamism in wealth status.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The same wealth ranking methodology in 1986-1987 and 2006-2007 yields comparable wealth ranks over time.

May combine two claims.

Twenty years ago, income associated with successful crop production (piece work labour and beer brewing) was more important, while in 2006-2007 people focus on off-farm production activities such as poultry rearing and gardening.

“Twenty years ago, income associated with successful crop production -such as piece work labour and beer brewing -were more important, while today people focus on 'off-farm' production activities such as poultry rearing and gardening, including the cultivation of marijuana.”

May combine two claims.

By 2006-2007, 78% of original primary households were still resident in Mazvihwa, 4% had moved to frontier districts, 1% to pre-2000 resettlement schemes, and 10% to new resettlement areas.

“By 2006-2007 most of the original primary households were still resident in Mazviwha (78%), but others had moved to frontier districts as part of informal migration to new rural areas (4%), to pre-2000 resettlement schemes (1%) and to the new resettlement areas as part of land invasions and fast-track land reform (10%).”

May combine two claims.

Some new off-farm cash income sources are evident in 2006-2007, including gold panning and cross-border trading, while others have disappeared, such as savings clubs and hunting.

“Some new income sources are evident in 2006-2007, including gold panning and cross-border trading, while others have disappeared, such as savings clubs (due to a lack of cash) and hunting (due to the resettlement of the former farms).”

May combine two claims.

Perceptions of wealth shifted between 1986-1987 and 2006-2007, with greater emphasis on good health and ownership of material goods, and reduced focus on cash income earning.

“Over time, then, perceptions of wealth have shifted.By 2006-2007 there was more of an emphasis on good health, as well as ownership of a range of material goods, and a reduced focus on cash income earning because of hyperinflation and economic collapse.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The same wealth ranking methodology in 1986-1987 and 2006-2007 yields comparable wealth ranks over time.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The 62 secondary households sampled in 2006-2007 had an average age of household head of 32.7 years.

“These 62 secondary households had an average age of household head of 32.7 years (range 21 to 71).”

May combine two claims.

In 2006-2007, 34 secondary households had ranks lower than their origin primary households, while only eight were higher.

“But this is not the case, as there are 34 such secondary households whose ranks are lower, while only eight are higher than their 'origin' primary households.”

May combine two claims.

The patterns of decline are not universal; some people are doing well, even in difficult circumstances, among both primary and secondary households.

“But the patterns of decline are not universal.There are some people who are doing well, even in such difficult circumstances, among both primary and secondary households.”

May combine two claims.

Increases in wealth rank were usually associated with accumulation of assets, with cattle being a key indicator.

“Increases in rank were usually associated with accumulation of assets, again cattle being a key indicator.”

May combine two claims.

Secondary households linked to upwardly mobile primary households were more likely to be non-resident, having moved away from Mazvhiwa and in gainful employment, sometimes abroad.

“The secondary households linked to this upwardly mobile group of households were more likely to be non-resident, having moved away from Mazvhiwa and in gainful employment, sometimes abroad.”

May combine two claims.

By 2006-2007, upwardly mobile households had been farming for 20 years; some had returned from work with retrenchment packages, and children had grown up providing remittances and support.

“By 2006-2007, they had been farming for 20 years; some had returned from periods of work, sometimes with windfall packages from retrenchments, and children had often grown up, providing remittances and other forms of support.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The threshold level of asset ownership linked to wealth is different for different people and interacts with other variables.

“As the ranking workshop discussions highlighted, the threshold level is different for different people, and interacts with other variables.”

May combine two claims.

Among the 11 households that moved out, only one declined in rank, four increased, and all others maintained their earlier rank.

“Of these households, only one had declined in rank (a household in the frontier areas), while four had increased in rank (two from the 'fast track' resettlements, one from the frontier area and the one household which had been resettled before 2000).All others had maintained their earlier rank.”

May combine two claims.

In the 2000s, cattle populations were again affected by drought (notably 2000-2001 and 2004-2005), and mortalities increased due to tick-borne disease caused by lack of dipping as veterinary facilities declined.

“In the 2000s, cattle populations were again affected by drought (notably in 2000-20001 and 2004-2005, although more modestly than the dramatic declines of 1991-1992), and mortalities increased due to an increase in tick-borne disease caused by the lack of dipping, as veterinary facilities declined.”

May combine two claims.

Households whose ranks declined had fewer cattle in 2006-2007 (mean 3.2, SD 2.4) than in 1986-1987 (mean 6.1, SD 9.8), and the same pattern applied to goats and donkeys.

“Those whose ranks declined over this period all had fewer cattle holdings than they did two decades before, declining from an average of 6.1 (SD: 9.8) in 1986-1987 to 3.2 (SD: 2.4) in 2006-2007, and the same pattern applied to goats and donkeys.”

May combine two claims.

In the comparison of 2006-2007 secondary households with 1986-1987 primary household equivalents, 36 secondary households were ranked lower, only 10 higher, and 16 the same.

“36 secondary households of 2006-2007 are ranked lower than their 1986-1987 primary household equivalents, while only 10 households were higher in rank.16 households were categorised in the same rank.”

May combine two claims.

Core assets, notably land and cattle, remained essential and an important hedge against inflation.

“Yet having core assets, notably land and cattle, remained essential and an important hedge against such rampant inflation, and thus indicators such as a 'good home' persisted.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The same wealth ranking methodology in 1986-1987 and 2006-2007 yields comparable wealth ranks over time.

May combine two claims.

Such remittances are often invested in farm-based assets, such as cattle and equipment, and these asset investments may help shift a household over a threshold and into an upward trajectory.

“Such remittances are often invested in farm-based assets, such as cattle and equipment, and these asset investments may help shift a household over a threshold and into an upward trajectory”

May combine two claims.

A lack of household assets, limited access to off-farm employment, and a decline in cluster-based support from others all contribute to the next generation not prospering.

“A lack of household assets, limited access to off-farm employment and a decline in cluster-based support from others, all contribute.”

May combine two claims.

A diversified livelihood strategy is common in Zimbabwe, bridging on- and off-farm income earning, and rural and urban spaces.

“A diversified livelihood strategy is common in Zimbabwe, bridging on-and off-farm income earning, and rural and urban spaces.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The investment in education following Independence resulted in a highly educated work-force able to seek remittance earning opportunities in the last two decades, particularly abroad.

“For example, the investment in education following Independence resulted in a highly educated work-force, able to seek remittance earning opportunities in the last two decades, particularly abroad.”

May combine two claims.

Resettlement, formal and informal, has been an important opportunity for some, with new land assets being the basis for increasing wealth.

“Resettlement -formal and informal -has thus been an important opportunity for some, with the new land assets being the basis for increasing 'wealth'.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The demographic cycle makes a big difference to livelihood outcomes.

“The demographic cycle, as already discussed, makes a big difference.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Others have argued that group-based participatory methods can result in exclusions and biases.

“Others have argued that group-based participatory methods can result in exclusions and biases (Mosse, 1994).”

• cites Mosse, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

'Stepping up' or 'out' may be possible in periods of wider economic prosperity, but may be very difficult when the broader economy is in decline, such as in the 2000s or following structural adjustment in the 1990s.

“'Stepping up' or 'out' may be possible in periods of wider economic prosperity, but may be very difficult when the broader economy is in decline, such as in the 2000s or following structural adjustment in the 1990s.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 1990s structural adjustment and post-1997 economic implosion caused job losses and loss of external income.

May combine two claims.

Those 'hanging in' or 'dropping out' include a wider group of 'footloose labour', linked to a 'semi-peasantry' unable to socially reproduce.

“Those 'hanging in' or 'dropping out', by contrast, include a wider group of 'footloose labour', linked to a 'semi-peasantry' unable to socially reproduce (Cousins et al., 1992;Bernstein, 2004).”

• cites Cousins et al., 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Bernstein, 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Having sufficient animals for a draught team (four cattle, or in combination with donkeys) is vital for timely ploughing and planting, which is critical to agricultural success in a dryland area.

“Having sufficient animals for a draught team (four cattle, or in combination with donkeys) is vital for timely ploughing and planting, which is in turn critical to agricultural success in a dryland area.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The notion of 'wealth' is seen potentially as too narrow, and some have preferred more generic criteria such as 'wellbeing' or 'success'.

“For example, the notion of 'wealth' is seen potentially as too narrow.Some have preferred to use a more generic criterion, such as 'wellbeing' (Gough and McGregor, 2007) or 'success' (Scoones et al., 2010).”

• cites Gough and McGregor, 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Scoones et al., 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Temporal patterns are highly significant in livelihood change.

“Very often temporal patterns are highly significant too.”

May combine two claims.

The ability to withstand shocks and stresses is substantially enhanced through asset accumulation, notably cattle ('stepping up'), and through 'stepping out', particularly remittances across generations.

“The ability to withstand shocks and stresses is substantially enhanced either through asset accumulation, notably of cattle ('stepping up'), but also by 'stepping out', particularly through the provision of remittances across generations.”

May combine two claims.

Sudden events such as a death, retrenchment or drought may have the biggest impact, moving a household from 'stepping up' to 'hanging in' and sometimes 'dropping out'.

“As emphasised above, the sudden impact of a death, a retrenchment or a drought may have the biggest impact, moving a household from a trajectory of 'stepping up' to a more precarious 'hanging in' strategy, with some ultimately 'dropping out'.”

May combine two claims.

With a few exceptions, the next rural-based generation is slipping deeper into poverty, and the trajectories of positive change observed for primary households that increased rank over 20 years are no longer available for most.

“With a few exceptions, the next rural-based generation is slipping deeper into poverty, and the trajectories of positive change observed for those primary households which have increased their rank level over 20 years are no longer available for most.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Relationships among households within 'clusters' can also be under-emphasised.

“Relationships among households within 'clusters' can also be under-emphasised (Drinkwater, 1993).”

• cites Drinkwater, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Increased land area resulted in boosts in farm production and accumulation of assets, a pattern seen more widely in the neighbouring province of Masvingo and elsewhere.

“This was only a small group in this sample, but it was striking that increased land area resulted in boosts in farm production and accumulation of assets, a pattern seen more widely in the neighbouring province of Masvingo and elsewhere (Moyo et al., 2009;Scoones et al., 2010).”

• cites Moyo et al., 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Scoones et al., 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Having plenty of cattle may be significant but becomes less of a wealth generator if there is no labour to herd it.

“For example, having plenty of cattle may be significant, but becomes less of a wealth generator if there is no labour to herd it.”

May combine two claims.

Leaving the rural areas and a reliance on agricultural production may be an important livelihood strategy.

“Fourth, leaving the rural areas, and a reliance on agricultural production, may be an important livelihood strategy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Wealth ranking methods have been specifically critiqued.

“Wealth ranking methods have been specifically critiqued (Adams et al., 1997).”

• cites Adams et al., 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Accumulation of assets is often reliant on a combination of both 'stepping up' and 'stepping out' livelihood strategies, and dependence on one, whether farming or off-farm employment, is always risky.

“First, accumulation of assets is often reliant on a combination of both 'stepping up' and 'stepping out' livelihood strategies, and dependence on one, whether farming or off-farm employment, is always risky.”

May combine two claims.

The decline in health and education provision in Zimbabwe over the last decade has been dramatic, with the quality of rural service provision now very poor across the country.

“The decline in health and education provision in Zimbabwe over the last decade has been dramatic, with the quality of rural service provision now very poor across the country (Nyazema, 2010), 13 suggesting another urgent rural development priority.”

• cites Nyazema, 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The children in upwardly mobile households benefited from post-Independence education investments and, now in their 20s and 30s, were able to manage economic shocks better than others.

“These were the children who benefited from post-Independence education investments, and now in their 20s and 30s were able to manage the economic shocks of the period better than others.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Using a combination of methods, including individual, household and group based approaches, both qualitative and quantitative, can reveal deeper insights, allowing for triangulation between different sources.

“However, we argue that using a combination of methods, including individual, household and group based approaches, both qualitative and quantitative, can reveal deeper insights, allowing for triangulation between different sources.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A focus on households as a unit potentially ignores many important intra-household relations and sometimes results in emphasising male livelihood activities, to the exclusion of women and young people.

“For example, a focus on households as a unit potentially ignores many important intra-household relations, and results sometimes in the emphasising of male livelihood activities, to the exclusion of women and young people (Guyer and Peters, 1987;O'Laughlin, 1998).”

• cites Guyer and Peters, 1987Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites O'Laughlin, 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Livelihood improvements may take many years, with small gains made each year from crop sales or employment savings, and are highly dependent on stability in livelihood opportunity and intrahousehold cooperation.

“Second, livelihood improvements may take many years, with small gains made each year from crop sales or employment savings, and is highly dependent on stability in livelihood opportunity and intrahousehold cooperation”

May combine two claims.

New secondary households are more individualised and reliant on their own, often very limited, resources.

“New secondary households are more individualised and reliant on their own, often very limited, resources.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Dorward's categorisation of livelihood transitions is suggestive of broader processes of class formation and agrarian change, with 'stepping up' relating to accumulation from below and formation of petty commodity producers, and 'stepping out' relating to accumulation linked to off-farm activities and a class of 'worker peasants'.

“Dorward's categorisation of livelihood transitions is suggestive of broader processes of class formation and agrarian change, with 'stepping up', relating to processes of 'accumulation from below' (Neocosmos, 1993), and the formation of a class of petty commodity producers, while 'stepping out' relates to a process of accumulation more firmly linked to off-farm activities, and including a class of”

• cites Neocosmos, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

A combined methods approach, linking survey methods, in-depth biographical interviews and wealth ranking, can be a useful contribution towards such analysis.

“Thus a combined methods approach, linking survey methods, in-depth biographical interviews and wealth ranking can, we argue, be a useful contribution towards such analysis.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Exactly the same wealth ranking approach was used in the repeat study, including the same workshop facilitators and many of the same informants.

“Exactly the same approach was used in the repeat study, including involving the same workshop facilitators and many of the same informants.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Such a structural political economy analysis, linked to detailed livelihood data, can help understand the pattern of livelihood strategies in a broader context of agrarian change.

“Such a structural political economy analysis, linked to detailed livelihood data, can help us understand the pattern of livelihood strategies in a broader context of agrarian change.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Any such analysis must be rooted in detailed understandings of the particular setting in order to comprehend the concrete and broader structural political-economic processes.

“Any such analysis, as Marx (1973: 101) reminded us, must be rooted in the detailed understandings of the particular setting -the 'rich totality of many determinations' -in order to comprehend 'the concrete' -and broader, structural political-economic processes.”

• cites Marx (1973: 101)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.