CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 44Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety StudiesEducation, Achievement, and GiftednessEducational Outcomes and Influences

Study Habits and Procrastination: The Role of Academic Self-Efficacy

Open access
Svartdal, Frode, Sæle, Rannveig Grøm, Dahl, Tove I., Nemtcan, Efim, Gamst-Klaussen, Thor·2022·Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research
DOI 10.1080/00313831.2021.1959393
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Inefficient study skills increase the probability that study work is perceived as difficult and aversive, with procrastination as a likely result. As a remedy, more effective study skills and habits may be encouraged. However, research indicates that good study skills and habits may not by themselves be sufficient to remedy problems, as this relationship may be mediated by efficacy beliefs related to academic functioning. We investigated this hypothesis across three student samples (total N = 752). As predicted, structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated that study self-efficacy mediated the study habits—procrastination relation. The mediation effects were medium to large. We conclude that training of, and advice on, study skills and habits should be accompanied by measures that build study self-efficacy.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/00313831.2021.1959393

Cites

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The increase in self-efficacy may be attributed to the skills-based nature of the intervention, which included regular feedback and strategies designed to enhance mastery.

    “The increase in self-efficacy may be attributed to the skills-based nature of the intervention, which included regular feedback and strategies designed to enhance mastery (Svartdal et al., 2022).”

    From Group cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing procrastination in college students: a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Svartdal et al., 2022

    The General Discussion says skills training should include feedback and mastery experiences to build self-efficacy beliefs. The source does not describe the citing paper’s intervention or establish that its reported increase in self-efficacy was caused by those features. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

No citation lists for this paper

No citation lists for this paper yet — checked again daily.

References 71 · Cited by 44

Research works printed but not linked: 52

  1. Balkis, M. (2011). Academic efficacy as a mediator and moderator variable in the relationship between academic pro- crastination and academic achievement. Egitim Arastirmalari -Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 45, 1- 16. http://acikerisim.pau.edu.tr:8080/xmlui/handle/11499/5762
  2. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice Hall.
  3. Bartimote-Aufflick, K., Bridgeman, A., Walker, R., Sharma, M., & Smith, L. (2016). The study, evaluation, and improvement of university student self-efficacy. Studies in Higher Education, 41(11), 1918-1942. https://doi. org/10.1080/03075079.2014.999319 · DOI
  4. Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd Edn). The Guilford Press.
  5. Brown, T., & Murdolo, Y. (2016). Approaches to study across four year-levels of undergraduate occupational therapy students: Similar or different? British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 79(12), 752-761. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0308022616662482 · DOI
  6. Cerino, E. S. (2014). Relationships between academic motivation, self-efficacy, and academic procrastination. Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, 19(4), 156-163. https://doi.org/10.24839/2164-8204.JN19.4.156 · DOI
  7. Diseth, A. (2011). Self-efficacy, goal orientations and learning strategies as mediators between preceding and sub- sequent academic achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(2), 191-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. lindif.2011.01.003 · DOI
  8. Ekuni, R., de Souza, B. M. N., Agarwal, P. K., & Pompeia, S. (2020). A conceptual replication of survey research on study strategies in a diverse, non-WEIRD student population. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000191 · DOI
  9. Ferrari, J. R., Parker, J. T., & Ware, C. B. (1992). Academic procrastination: Personality correlates with Myers-Briggs types, self-efficacy, and academic locus of control. Journal of social Behavior and personality, 7(3), 495-502.
  10. Foerst, N. M., Klug, J., Jöstl, G., Spiel, C., & Schober, B. (2017). Knowledge vs. Action: Discrepancies in university students' knowledge about and self-reported use of self-regulated learning strategies. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1288. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01288 · DOI
  11. Goffe, W. L., & Kauper, D. (2014). A survey of principles instructors: Why lecture prevails. The Journal of Economic Education, 45(4), 360-375. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220485.2014.946547 · DOI · Paper page
  12. Gore, P. A. (2006). Academic self-efficacy as a predictor of college outcomes: Two incremental validity studies. Journal of Career Assessment, 14(1), 92-115. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072705281367 · DOI
  13. Gregorich, S. E. (2006). Do self-report instruments allow meaningful comparisons across diverse population groups? Testing measurement invariance using the confirmatory factor analysis framework. Medical Care, 44(11 Suppl. 3), S78-S94. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mlr.0000245454.12228. · DOI
  14. Honicke, T., & Broadbent, J. (2016). The influence of academic self-efficacy on academic performance: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 17, 63-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002 · DOI · Paper page
  15. Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53-60. https://academic-publishing.org/index.php/ejbrm/ article/view/1224
  16. Hu, L.-t., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10. 1080/10705519909540118 · DOI · Paper page
  17. Huang, C. (2013). Gender differences in academic self-efficacy: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(1), 1-35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-011-0097-y · DOI · Paper page
  18. Jairam, D. (2019). First-year seminar focused on study skills: An ill-suited attempt to improve student retention. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877x.2019.1582757 · DOI
  19. Jarvis, C. B., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, P. M. (2003). A critical review of construct indicators and measurement model misspecification in marketing and consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(2), 199-218. https://doi.org/10.1086/376806 https://doi.org/10.1086/376806 · DOI
  20. Jung, K. R. (2013). The mediational effect of academic self-discipline (ASD) between academic self-efficacy (ASE) and college GPA [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Minnesota. http://hdl.handle.net/11299/157688
  21. Khan, M. J., & Rasheed, S. (2019). Moderating role of learning strategies between meta-cognitive awareness and study habits among university students. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research: PJPR, 34(Spring 2019), 215-231. https://doi.org/10.33824/PJPR.2019.34.1.12 · DOI
  22. Klingsieck, K. B., Grund, A., Schmid, S., & Fries, S. (2013). Why students procrastinate: A qualitative approach. Journal of College Student Development, 54(4), 397-412. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2013.0060 · DOI · Paper page
  23. Kreber, C., Castleden, H., Erfani, N., & Wright, T. (2005). Self-regulated learning about university teaching: An exploratory study. Teaching in Higher Education, 10(1), 75-97. https://doi.org/10.1080/1356251052000305543 · DOI · Paper page
  24. MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods, 1(2), 130-149. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.1.2.130 · DOI · Paper page
  25. MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39(1), 99-128. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC2821115/. https://doi.org/0.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4 https://doi.org/10.1207/ s15327906mbr3901_4 · DOI · Paper page
  26. Mandap, C. M. (2016). Examining the differences in procrastination tendencies among university students. International Journal of Education and Research, 4(4), 431-436. http://ww.w.ijern.com/journal/2016/April- 2016/35.pdf
  27. McCloskey, J., & Scielzo, S. A. (2015). Finally!: The development and validation of the academic procrastination scale. Manuscript submitted for publication. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shannon-Scielzo/publication/273259879_ Finally_The_Development_and_Validation_of_the_Academic_Procrastination_Scale/links/ 54fcfb3d0cf20700c5e9c735/Finally-The-Development-and-Validation-of-the-Academic-Procrastination-Scale.pdf
  28. Pajares, F., & Valiante, G. (1997). Influence of self-efficacy on elementary students' writing. The Journal of Educational Research, 90(6), 353-360. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1997.10544593 · DOI
  29. Phan, H. P. (2011). Interrelations between self-efficacy and learning approaches: A developmental approach. Educational Psychology, 31(2), 225-246. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2010.545050 · DOI
  30. Phan, H. P. (2013). Theoretical constructs that explain and enhance learning: A longitudinal examination. Higher Education Research & Development, 32(6), 1007-1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2013.806445 · DOI
  31. Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33-40. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.33 · DOI · Paper page
  32. Prat-Sala, M., & Redford, P. (2010). The interplay between motivation, self-efficacy, and approaches to studying. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(2), 283-305. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709909X480563 · DOI
  33. Preacher, K. J., & Kelley, K. (2011). Effect size measures for mediation models: Quantitative strategies for commu- nicating indirect effects. Psychological Methods, 16(2), 93-115. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022658 · DOI · Paper page
  34. Purdie, N., & Hattie, J. (1999). The relationship between study skills and learning outcomes: A meta-analysis. Australian Journal of Education, 43(1), 72-86. https://doi.org/10.1177/000494419904300106 · DOI
  35. Pychyl, T. A., Morin, R. W., & Salmon, B. R. (2000). Procrastination and the planning fallacy: An examination of the study habits of university students. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 15(5), 135.
  36. Richardson, J. T. (2010). Perceived academic quality and approaches to studying in higher education: Evidence from danish students of occupational therapy. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 54(2), 189-203. https:// doi.org/10.1080/00313831003637972 · DOI
  37. Roberts, N., & Thatcher, J. (2009). Conceptualizing and testing formative constructs: Tutorial and annotated example. ACM Sigmis Database: The Database for Advances in Information Systems, 40(3), 9-39. https://doi. org/10.1145/1592401.1592405 · DOI
  38. Schouwenburg, H. C. (2004). Procrastination in academic settings: General introduction. In H. C. Schouwenburg, C. H. Lay, T. A. Pychyl, & J. R. Ferrari (Eds.), Counseling the procrastinator in academic settings (pp. 3-17). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10808-001 · DOI
  39. Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized self-efficacy scale. Measures in Health Psychology: A User's Portfolio. Causal and Control Beliefs, 1(1), 35-37. http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~health/engscal.htm
  40. Stewart, M., Stott, T., & Nuttall, A. M. (2016). Study goals and procrastination tendencies at different stages of the undergraduate degree. Studies in Higher Education, 41(11), 2028-2043. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015. 1005590 · DOI
  41. Svartdal, F. (2017). Measuring procrastination: Psychometric properties of the Norwegian versions of the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS) and the pure procrastination scale (PPS). Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 61(1), 18-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2015.1066439 · DOI
  42. tb00460.x · DOI · Paper page
  43. Tuckman, B. W. (1991). The development and concurrent validity of the procrastination scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51(2), 473-480. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164491512022 · DOI · Paper page
  44. Van Dinther, M., Dochy, F., & Segers, M. (2011). Factors affecting students' self-efficacy in higher education. Educational Research Review, 6(2), 95-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2010.10.003 · DOI · Paper page
  45. Verplanken, B. (2006). Beyond frequency: Habit as mental construct. British Journal of Social Psychology, 45(3), 639- 656. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466605X49122 · DOI · Paper page
  46. Weinstein, C. E., Husman, J., & Dierking, D. R. (2000). Self-regulation interventions with a focus on learning strat- egies. In Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 727-747). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/ 50051-2 · DOI · Paper page
  47. Wernersbach, B. M., Crowley, S. L., Bates, S. C., & Rosenthal, C. (2014). Study skills course impact on academic self- efficacy. Journal of Developmental Education, 14-33. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24614030
  48. Yockey, R. D. (2016). Validation of the short form of the academic procrastination scale. Psychological Reports, 118 (1), 171-179. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294115626825 https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294115626825 · DOI
  49. Zarick, L. M., & Stonebraker, R. (2009). I'll do it tomorrow: The logic of procrastination. College Teaching, 57(4), 211- 215. https://doi.org/10.1080/87567550903218687 · DOI
  50. Zeegers, P. (2004). Student learning in higher education: A path analysis of academic achievement in science. Higher Education Research & Development, 23(1), 35-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/0729436032000168487 · DOI
  51. Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 3-17. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2501_2 · DOI · Paper page
  52. Zimmerman, B. J., Bandura, A., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Self-motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29(3), 663-676. https://doi. org/10.3102/00028312029003663 · DOI · Paper page

Authors
Svartdal, F., Sæle, R. G., Dahl, T. I., Nemtcan, E., & Gamst-Klaussen, T.
Affiliations
UiT The Arctic University of Norway (NO)
Corresponding author
Svartdal, Frode
ORCID
Venue
Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2021-08-03
Volume
66
Issue
7
Pages
1141-1160
ISSN
  • 0031-3831 (ISSN-L)
  • 1470-1170
DOI
10.1080/00313831.2021.1959393
OpenAlex
W3199434388
Cited by
44
References
71
Citations by year
2026: 7 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 1
FWCI
4.10
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
  • Social Sciences › Education › Educational Outcomes and Influences
Keywords
study habits, procrastination, academic self-efficacy, study skills, mediation, student learning, self-efficacy training

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review