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Revisiting the Conceptualization, Measurement, and Generation of Interest
Abstract
This article provides an overview of recent interest research, focusing on the conceptualization, measurement, and generation of interest. It includes work that reflects differing theoretical backgrounds, research traditions, domains, and participants. Research on interest needs to be theoretically grounded if it is to be generally applicable and inform practice. Investigators must consider their own research questions, including learners’ age and characteristics of the learning context, in relation to the range of conceptualizations in the field. Whereas researchers’ questions should drive research on interest, their conceptualization of interest should inform their choice of measures. In addition, research addressing the ways in which interest might be generated and/or supported to develop should be aligned with both the conceptualization and measurement(s) of interest.
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“In research focusing on interest and achievement emotions, for instance, a stable, so-called trait level (e.g., individual interest) is often distinguished from a shorter, taskdependent state level (e.g., situational interest) (see Hidi & Renninger, 2006;Renninger & Hidi, 2011 for interest; Pekrun, 2006 for achievement emotions).”
From Motivation-Achievement Cycles in Learning: a Literature Review and Research Agenda (2022) · cites this paper as Renninger & Hidi, 2011
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Items 201–300 of 783
Kikas, E., Šilinskas, G., & Soodla, P. (2015) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025415573641 · Cited by 35
“Interest is related to focused attention, increased cognitive and affective functioning, persistent effort, and engagement with particular events and objects (Ainley, Hidi, & Berndorff, 2002; Renninger & Hidi, 2011).”
BackgroundEndres, T., Eitel, A., Renninger, K. A., Vössing, C., & Renkl, A. (2024) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.101962 · Cited by 29
Self-citationExploring the Origins of intrinsic motivation
Zheng, Y., Janiszewski, C. A., & Schreier, M. (2022) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-022-09969-8 · Cited by 36
“In the present research, we set out to 1 The present research uses enjoyment, interest, and the desire to reengage with the activity as measures of intrinsic motivation (Reeve, 1989; Renninger & Hidi, 2011).”
BackgroundMethodSituational Interest: A Proposal to Enhance Conceptual Clarity
Knogler, M. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55509-6_6 · Cited by 32
It is not only about the depth of processing: What if eye am not interested in the text?
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Multimedia design for learner interest and achievement: a visual guide to pharmacology
Bland, T., Guo, M., & Dousay, T. A. (2024) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-024-05077-y · Cited by 27
“Situational interest can be further delineated between triggered and maintained [20, 21].”
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Designing and evaluating mobile self-reporting techniques: crowdsourcing for citizen science
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“In the past, researchers used surveys and interviews to elicit self-report information [36].”
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BackgroundInfluentialThe Dynamic Nature of Interest: Embedding Interest Within Self-Regulation
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“As described in other papers (Renninger & Hidi, 2011; Sansone & Morgan, 1992; Sansone & Smith, 2000; Sansone & Thoman, 2005), we focus on interest as a phenomenological experience involving both cognitive and affective components.”
BackgroundOut-of-school programs and interest: Design considerations based on a meta-analysis
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“…in the inquiry-based learning activities repeatedly, an emerging individual interest shows up (phase three), which may finally lead to a well-developed science interest with positive emotions, and more stored knowledge and value compared with other activities (phase four) (Renninger & Hidi, 2011).”
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Sansone, C., Thoman, D. B., & Fraughton, T. B. (2015) · doi:10.3102/978-0-935302-42-4_7 · Cited by 25
“…with Hidi and Renninger’s (2006) FourPhase Model of Interest Development, which describes how interest can develop within a person from a momentary reaction to stimuli to well-developed individual interests in a topic or domain (for reviews, see Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Renninger & Hidi, 2011).”
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“While a number of theoretical conceptualizations of interest have emerged in the literature, interest is widely considered a critical motivational construct that supports engagement and learning (Renninger & Hidi, 2011).”
BackgroundContribution of Multimedia to Girls’ Experience of Citizen Science
Flagg, B. N. (2016) · Citizen Science Theory and Practice · doi:10.5334/cstp.51 · Cited by 25
“These interest triggers parallel sources of interest summarized by Renninger and Hidi (2011), including features such as novel information, intensity, and meaningfulness.”
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Developing Middle School Students’ Interest in Learning Science and Geology Through Slowmation
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“It is noted in the literature that there are a range of methods for measuring interest and its development (Krapp and Prenzel 2011; Renninger and Hidi 2011); however, self-report measures such as surveys and student interviews are used widely by researchers and are deemed appropriate for measuring all stages of intere…”
Andrews, S., & Aikens, M. L. (2018) · Journal of Microbiology and Biology Education · doi:10.1128/jmbe.v19i2.1589 · Cited by 25
Identifying Pathways to Computer Science
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“participants’ perception of the instructional innovation was highly positively correlated with the triggered interest (Renninger and Hidi 2011; Harackiewicz et al. 2008; Mitchell 1993).”
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“Renninger and Hidi (2011) have noted that such self-report measures are currently the most widely applied approach in research on motivation, especially academic choice.”
InfluentialExamining the relationships between learning interest, flow, and creativity
Dan, Y. (2020) · School Psychology International · doi:10.1177/0143034320983399 · Cited by 27
“Interest is a phenomenon emerging from an individuals’ interaction with specific objects, which usually involves positive feeling and attention (Renninger & Hidi, 2011; Schunk et al., 2008).”
BackgroundWu, X. B., Sandoval, C. L., Knight, S. L., Jaime, X. A., Macik, M., & Schielack, J. F. (2021) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-021-00290-3 · Cited by 31
Tan, A. L., Gillies, R. M., & Jamaludin, A. B. (2021) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci11080379 · Cited by 22
“Interest has been long recognized to be a critical aspect of motivation for learning [9].”
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Laine, E., Veermans, M., Lahti, A., & Veermans, K. (2017) · Frontline Learning Research · doi:10.14786/flr.v5i4.306 · Cited by 22
Güdel, K., Heitzmann, A., & Müller, A. (2018) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-018-9475-y · Cited by 29
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Individual interest and learning in secondary school STEM education
Laine, E., Veermans, M., Gegenfurtner, A., & Veermans, K. (2020) · Frontline Learning Research · doi:10.14786/flr.v8i2.461 · Cited by 21
“Rotgans and Schmidt (2017c) criticize the fourphase model of interest development (Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Renninger & Hidi, 2011) for being too simplified and vague.”
BackgroundChung, Y., & Kim, S. (2022) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2022.102145 · Cited by 25
Interest in the dynamics of task behavior: processes that link person and task in effective learning
Ainley, M. (2010) · Advances in motivation and achievement · doi:10.1108/s0749-7423(2010)000016a010 · Cited by 21
The role of explicit need strength for emotions during learning
Flunger, B., Pretsch, J., Schmitt, M., & Ludwig, P. (2013) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.10.001 · Cited by 20
O INTERESSE PESSOAL E O FATOR PROFESSOR NO PROCESSO DE APRENDIZAGEM DO ALUNO
Salvateirra, L. (2019) · Itinerarius Reflectionis · doi:10.5216/rir.v15i1.53465 · Cited by 20
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“By describing reengagement in specific activities as a key mechanism of interest development, the TSID model builds on Holland’s assumption of cumulative learning as well as processes described by other interest theories (Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Holland, 1997; Renninger & Hidi, 2011; Silvia, 2001).”
BackgroundMethodLACK OF INTEREST IN SCHOOL SCIENCE AMONG NON-SCIENCE STUDENTS AT THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL
Adu-Gyamfi, K. (2013) · Problems of Education in the 21st Century · doi:10.33225/pec/13.53.07 · Cited by 20
“…or career has been found to vary and that students’ lack of interest in a course or career could be nurtured with supports to become a future interest (renninger & hidi, 2011). this is because a number of factors come onboard when it comes to students’ interest. the reveal of the literature by…”
BackgroundInfluentialRoberts, T. A., & Sadler, C. D. (2018) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.04.002 · Cited by 20
Roure, C., Lentillon‐Kaestner, V., Méard, J., & Pasco, D. (2019) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.446 · Cited by 20
Chapter 5: Exploring a Conative Perspective on Mathematical Engagement
Goldin, G. A. (2019) · Advances in mathematics education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04432-9_8 · Cited by 21
Fryer, L. K., & Bovee, H. N. (2020) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2020.1712692 · Cited by 22
“The four-phase model of interest (Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Renninger & Hidi, 2011) situates interest within a framework that provides an explanation for the developmental process through which students initiate and persist in learning.”
Schweder, S., & Raufelder, D. (2021) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2021.1887066 · Cited by 26
“…theory, learning contexts can be differentiated by the extend to which they interests and thus promote learning based on satisfying basic needs (Renninger & Hidi, 2011, 2016): “The potential for interest is in the person but the content and the environment define the direction of interest and…”
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“It may also be a more authentic task (Sandoval, Sodian, Koerber, & Wong, 2014) and students may find it more interesting and engaging, which could lead to better learning (Guthrie et al., 2006; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Renninger & Hidi, 2011; Shoenbach & Greenleaf, 2009).”
BackgroundThe Promotion and Development of Interest: The Importance of Perceived Values
Hulleman, C. S., Thoman, D. B., Dicke, A., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55509-6_10 · Cited by 25
“In sum, the utility value interventions reviewed here contained two of the four main factors identified as critical in the development of interest (Renninger & Hidi, 2011): perceived value and contextual support.”
BackgroundA developmental extension to the multidimensional structure of interests.
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Emotional Responses to Seductive Scientific Texts During Online and Offline Reading Tasks
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“For example, interest-driven processes have at times been identified as: Cognitive, situational, individual, text-based, and topic-based (Campion et al., 2009; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Kintsch, 1980; Renninger & Hidi, 2011; Wang & Adesope, 2016).”
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3DLIM: Intelligent analysis of students’ learning interest by using multimodal fusion technology
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“It has been proved that students who pay more attention in the learning/teaching process generally perform better and show more interest than those who do not (Singh et al., 2022; Renninger and Hidi, 2011; Krapp, 2005).”
BackgroundTriggering STEM interest with Minecraft in a hybrid summer camp.
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“Renninger and Hidi (2011) provide a systematic review of different interest conceptualizations (see Table 1 for a summary of the models reviewed here). Furthermore, Krapp’s (2005, 2007) work includes affect and cognitive components for individual interest (goals related to content), but does not include knowledge or e…”
BackgroundInfluentialDai, T., & Cromley, J. G. (2014) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.06.002 · Cited by 17
Seeking Common Ground: Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest
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Self-regulated learning as a cyclical process and predictor of creative problem-solving
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“Similar items have demonstrated divergent validity (Ainley & Patrick, 2006; Renninger & Hidi, 2011).”
BackgroundBecoming interested during teacher education
Rautiainen, M. A., Mäensivu, M., & Nikkola, T. (2018) · European Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/02619768.2018.1462329 · Cited by 17
“There is potential for interest in a person but interaction with the content and the environment direct and determine a person’s interest development (Hidi and Renninger 2006, 112; Renninger and Hidi 2011, 169).”
BackgroundInfluentialDisentangling intensity from breadth of science interest: What predicts learning behaviors?
Bathgate, M. E., & Schunn, C. D. (2016) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-016-9382-0 · Cited by 18
“That is, educators seek to encourage the development of interest, even if children have low initial science interest (e.g., Hidi and Harackiewicz 2000; Renninger and Hidi 2011).”
BackgroundGEERLING, D. M., Butner, J., Fraughton, T. B., Sinclair, S., Zachary, J. L., & Sansone, C. (2019) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2018.1561403 · Cited by 17
“The experience of interest has been defined in many different ways (see Renninger & Hidi, 2011; Renninger & Hidi, 2016, for recent overviews).”
BackgroundLearning Letters: Evidence and Questions From a Science‐of‐Reading Perspective
Roberts, T. A. (2021) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.394 · Cited by 33
The Changes in Lower Secondary School Students’ Interest During Collaborative Learning
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“Specifically, the study illustrates how emotional valence changes more frequently than situational interest after collaborative learning, which raises questions regarding the role of the affective component in situational interest (Renninger & Hidi, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialPowder Fever and Its Impact on Decision-Making in Avalanche Terrain
Mannberg, A., Hendrikx, J., Johnson, J., & Hetland, A. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18189496 · Cited by 17
“Several scholars make a distinction between hedonic emotions such as pleasure, satisfaction, and happiness and eudaimonic emotions such as interest, enthusiasm, and engagement [29,30].”
BackgroundLee, H. J., Park, Y., & Bong, M. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102462 · Cited by 34
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The predictors of academic interest: fluid intelligence, openness, and their interaction
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“Future research would be benefitted from employing behavioural measures or videos to assess interest in educational materials (Renninger & Hidi, 2011).”
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Situational Interest and Actualized Individual Interest: Two Problematic Constructs
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How Chinese students’ scientific competencies are influenced by their attitudes?
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“…achievement and performance (Gungor, Eryılmaz, & Fakıoglu, 2007; Hong, Hwang, Liu, Ho, & Chen, 2014; Köller, Baumert, & Kai, 2001; Nuutila, Tuominen, Tapola, Vainikainen, & Niemivirta, 2018; Renninger & Hidi, 2011; Rotgans & Schmidt, 2011; Singh, Granville, & Dika, 2002; Wigfield & Cambria, 2010).”
Høgheim, S., & Federici, R. A. (2020) · European Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/02619768.2020.1860006 · Cited by 21
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On the Two Faces of Passion: The Harmonious and the Obsessive
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The Factors and Features of Museum Fatigue in Science Centres Felt by Korean Students
Kim, M., Dillon, J. S., & Song, J. (2018) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-018-9695-x · Cited by 15
Interesse und Interessenentwicklung
Blankenburg, J., & Scheersoi, A. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-56320-5_15 · Cited by 15
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“Interest, as it is commonly organized within the four-phase model of interest development (Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Renninger & Hidi, 2011, 2015), is described as potentially moving from situational interest (relying on emotional responses such as surprise, enjoyment, fear, even disgust), to…”
BackgroundClarification du construit de l’intérêt en situation en éducation physique
Roure, C. (2020) · Staps · doi:10.3917/sta.130.0061 · Cited by 15
Integrated Outreach: Increasing Engagement in Computer Science and Cybersecurity
Wolf, S., Borowczak, A. C. B., Borowczak, M., Johnson, M., Cooley, R., & Mogenson, K. (2020) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci10120353 · Cited by 15
“Furthermore, establishing long-term student interest requires support from educators [43,44], and educators should be involved in maintaining the learning environment that houses outreach events that spark motivation [34].”
BackgroundDing, C. (2022) · International Journal of Educational Research Open · doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2022.100191 · Cited by 15
“A positive disposition has been found to contribute to student enjoyment of science learning (Alsop & Watts, 2003; Bybee & Mccrae, 2011; Ma, 2018; Renninger & Hidi, 2011).”
Thoman, D. B., Lee, G., Zambrano, J., GEERLING, D. M., Smith, J. L., & Sansone, C. (2019) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430219838337 · Cited by 19
The four-phase model of interest development: Addressing individual differences
Hidi, S. E., & Renninger, K. A. (2026) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102865 · Cited by 15
Self-citationWhat Keeps Teachers Engaged during Professional Development? The Role of Interest Development
Akcaoğlu, M., Özcan, M. Ş., & Doğan, S. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13020188 · Cited by 14
Magnifico, A. M., Olmanson, J., & Cope, B. (2013) · E-Learning and Digital Media · doi:10.2304/elea.2013.10.4.483 · Cited by 15
Lewalter, D., Geyer, C., & Neubauer, K. (2014) · Visitor Studies · doi:10.1080/10645578.2014.945345 · Cited by 15
“…reach goals (Bandura, 1977, 1997; Liem, Lau, & Nie, 2008); and their relation to subject matter—such as thematic interest (e.g., Krapp & Prenzel, 2011; Renninger & Hidi, 2011) or a job connection to the subject matter (Lewalter, 2003)—play important roles in the efficiency of a learning experience…”
BackgroundAbbott, R., Mickail, T., Richards, T. L., Renninger, K. A., Hidi, S. E., Beers, S. F., & Berninger, V. W. (2017) · International Journal of Educational Methodology · doi:10.12973/ijem.3.1.41 · Cited by 19
“The current study of interest and self-efficacy draws on the Four-Phase Model of Development of Interest (Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Renninger & Hidi, 2011, 2016).”
MethodSelf-citationPriemer, B., Menzl, C., Hagos, F., Musold, W., & Schulz, J. (2018) · Zeitschrift für Didaktik der Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s40573-018-0073-z · Cited by 14
Computer Science Outreach Workshop and Interest Development: A Longitudinal Study
Lakanen, A.-J., & Isomöttönen, V. (2018) · Informatics in Education · doi:10.15388/infedu.2018.18 · Cited by 14
“On the other hand, interest is particularly vulnerable to technical and practical issues in the situational phases (Renninger and Hidi, 2011, p. 178).”
BackgroundPotvin, P., Ayotte‐Beaudet, J., Hasni, A., Smith, J., Giamellaro, M., Lin, T., & Tsai, C. (2022) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-022-10050-0 · Cited by 13
“It is composed of at least three, and sometimes four, main components: (1) affective (how one feels about the object) (Renninger & Hidi, 2011), (2) cognitive (what one understands or believes about the object) (Ibid.)”
BackgroundCatrysse, L., Chauliac, M., Donche, V., & Gijbels, D. (2022) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/0163853x.2022.2142459 · Cited by 13
“Interest is described as a “warm” factor in the CRKM as it is an important motivational characteristic for text learning (Alexander & Jetton, 1996; Krapp, 1999; Renninger & Hidi, 2011, 2016).”
BackgroundArtificial Intelligence in Higher Education
Jupalli, T. K., Reddy, M. S. T., & Kondaveeti, H. K. (2022) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-5400-8.ch001 · Cited by 16
Ochsen, S., Bernholt, A., Grund, S., & Bernholt, S. (2023) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2022.2163204 · Cited by 14
“Renninger and Hidi (2011) reviewed these parallel definitions and summed up the following five characteristics of interest as a motivational variable on which most researchers agree: interest is specific for a content or an object (1).”
BackgroundBrakhage, H., Gröschner, A., Gläser‐Zikuda, M., & Hagenauer, G. (2023) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-023-10120-x · Cited by 13
The Four-Phase Interest Development in Engineering Survey
Michaelis, J. E., & Nathan, M. J. (2015) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/p.25117 · Cited by 13
Predictive effects of temperament on motivation
Rawlings, A. M., Tapola, A., & Niemivirta, M. (2017) · International Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.17583/ijep.2017.2414 · Cited by 13
Individual and class-level factors for middle school students’ interest in math homework
Xu, J. (2020) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2020.101673 · Cited by 16
Is Our Fascination With Museum Displays More About What We Think or How We Feel?
Dahl, T., Entner, P. S., Johansen, A., & Vittersø, J. (2013) · Visitor Studies · doi:10.1080/10645578.2013.827011 · Cited by 11
“To be interested in something entails having a cognitive and affective relationship with an object (Krapp, 2002; Renninger & Hidi, 2011).”
BackgroundMorgan, B. L., Naidoo, A., Henn, C., & Rabie, S. (2019) · Handbook of Innovative Career Counselling · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22799-9_27 · Cited by 10
Clarke‐Midura, J., Sun, C., & Pantic, K. (2020) · ACM Transactions on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3425710 · Cited by 14
“According to Hidi and Renninger [46, 82], when interest is maintained through repeated engagement, it is easier to deepen or evolve into a higher state of interest, which may be why we are seeing a significant increase in interest for this particular group.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Development of Attitudes and Emotions Related to Mathematics
Dowker, A., Ashcraft, M. H., & Krinzinger, H. (2012) · Child Development Research · doi:10.1155/2012/238435 · Cited by 19
“Further research is needed including additional characteristics of instructional quality, which are related to students’ self-concept and interest in math such as challenge, sense of task novelty, or the opportunity to engage with others [9].”
BackgroundInfluentialLepper, C., Stang‐Rabrig, J., & McElvany, N. (2022) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101680 · Cited by 21
Cancino, M. (2023) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2023.101920 · Cited by 17
Metadata
- Authors
- RENNINGER, K. A., & HIDI, S.
- Affiliations
- Swarthmore College (US)
- ORCID
- RENNINGER, K. ANN
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2011-07
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 168-184
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W2059669144
- Cited by
- 786
- References
- 153
- Citations by year
- 2026: 38 · 2025: 62 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 57 · 2022: 73 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 87 · 2019: 72 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 41 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 31.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Works - Scholarship, Research, & Creative Expression (Swarthmore College) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Swarthmore College
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychological and Educational Research Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Learning Styles and Cognitive Differences
- Keywords
- interest, student motivation, interest development, learning context
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