Cognitive Load and Working Memory in Multimedia Learning: Conceptual and Measurement Issues
Open accessAbstract
This article reviews contemporary research on multimedia learning that uses cognitive load theory as the major theoretical framework. In particular, we address the extent to which working memory has been conceptualized and measured in this research, what kind of subjective measures of cognitive load have been used and whether such measures are combined with other measures of cognitive load, and how results from subjective measures have been related to learning and achievement. The findings show that most of the reviewed studies did not include any clear conceptualization or measurement of working memory, used only general subjective measures containing one or very few items, and did not report findings consistent with the hypothesized relationship between cognitive load and multimedia learning. The findings are discussed in relation to the broader goal of improving research on cognitive load in the context of multimedia learning.
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The negative relationship between justification for knowing and inclusion of incorrect information may reflect the cognitive demands of critical evaluation, as students who prioritise reasoning must allocate significant cognitive resources to assess reliability and consistency of information.
“This finding may reflect the cognitive demands of critical evaluation, as students who prioritise reasoning must allocate significant cognitive resources to assess the reliability and consistency of information (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”
From “ <scp>ChatGPT</scp> can make mistakes. Check important info.” Epistemic beliefs and metacognitive accuracy in students' integration of <scp>ChatGPT</scp> content into academic writing (2025) · cites this paper as Anmarkrud et al., 2019
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“The purpose of applying CLT in the classroom is to reduce the cognitive load that hinders learning (Anmarkrud et al., 2019), and to promote the cognitive load that favors learning (Sweller et al., 1998).”
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“Consequently, eye-tracking data should be used in conjunction with other cognitive load measurements (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; van Gog & Jarodzka, 2013).”
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Fellman, D., Lincke, A., Berge, E., & Jonsson, B. (2020) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2020.00022 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“As WM has a limited capacity, the cognitive load theory pinpoints the importance of reducing unnecessary WM loads, allowing students’ to direct their WM capacity to merely learning-related processes (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”
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“The experienced mental load and invested mental effort are most often measured with subjective rating scales (e.g., Naismith et al., 2015; Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”
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“Different video-based environments may yield varying instructional performance and cognitive load (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020).”
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“Concurrently, self-reports are the most prevalent approach to cognitive load measurement in the field of education (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”
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“Moreover, Anmarkrud, and Andresen [15] indicate the importance of cognitive load theory to examine the potential benefits of using multimedia in learning.”
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“Numerous studies on multimedia learning or DPS use the cognitive load theory (Sweller, 2011) to show that these processes can generate extraneous cognitive overload and challenge working memory capacity (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; DeStefano & LeFevre, 2007; Kalyuga, 2007).”
BackgroundTowards human digital twin: Reviewing human modelling and simulation
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“The two main identified resources impacting working memory load are intrinsic cognitive load and extraneous cognitive load (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”
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“Moreover, recent critical review studies (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; Rey et al., 2019) on multimedia-based learning in light of CLT have shown that many previous studies have not measured STM capacity for the same respondents who are part of experiments that investigate LOs from multimedia.”
BackgroundYu, S., Tian, L., Wang, G., & Nie, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1401005 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Development and Validation of a Cognitive Load Measure for General Educational Settings
Ober, T. M., Lu, Y., Blacklock, C., Liu, C., & Cheng, Y. (2023) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/07342829231169171 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“There are several challenges studying cognitive load (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; Kirschner et al., 2011; Moreno, 2010).”
BackgroundGe, S., Leng, C. H., & Baharudin, S. M. (2022) · International Journal of Chinese Education · doi:10.1177/2212585x221099964 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Cognitive load theory (CLT), states that selectively attendant and processing incoming sensory data are limited in working memory capacity (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialNeuroimaging tools in multimedia learning: a systematic review
Özel, P., Mutlu-Bayraktar, D., Altan, T., Coşkun, V., & Olamat, A. (2021) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2021.1984255 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Gauging the utility of ambient displays by measuring cognitive load
Shelton, B., Nesbitt, K. V., Thorpe, A., & Eidels, A. (2020) · Cognition Technology & Work · doi:10.1007/s10111-020-00639-8 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Evaluation of children’s cognitive load in processing and storage of their spatial working memory
Chen, H.-C., Kao, C., Wang, T., & Lai, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.918048 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Cognitive Load Estimation Using a Hybrid Cluster-Based Unsupervised Machine Learning Technique
Hassan, I., Zolezzi, M., Khalil, H. W., Al-Saady, R., Pedersen, S., & Chowdhury, M. E. H. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3428691 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“However, subjective methods have limitations in providing real-time assessments and may introduce bias [31], [32].”
BackgroundSudár, A., & Csapó, Á. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31717 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Despite offering a viable approach in diverse situations, such questionnaires may nevertheless suffer from subjective bias and low data resolution [4,9,102,15].”
BackgroundFeng, T.-T. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies : Official Journal of the IFIP technical committee on Education · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-12386-0 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“According to researchers, there are currently no generally accepted or widely used means of measuring cognitive load, but researchers propose the development of such tools (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; Leppink et al., 2013; Thor-vald & Lindblom, 2014; Vainshtein et al., 2019).”
Evaluating graphing quadratic worksheet on visual thinking classification: A confirmatory analysis
Oktaviyanthi, R., & Agus, R. N. (2023) · Infinity Journal · doi:10.22460/infinity.v12i2.p207-224 · Cited by 9
“The goal is for motivating students to learn more, involving in the discovery of implicit mathematical ideas, supporting in reducing cognitive load, and improving higher-order thinking processes (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; von Thienen et al., 2021). The description's points confirm the importance of developing mathematic…”
BackgroundInfluentialPengelley, J., Whipp, P. R., & Rovis-Hermann, N. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09781-x · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“In referring to tasks that have authenticity, some authors have highlighted the need for greater use of contextualised learning and assessment tasks (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; De Jong, 2010; Martin, 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialEffects of Survey Order on Subjective Measures of Cognitive Load: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Dönmez, O., Akbulut, Y., Zabzun, G., & Köseoğlu, B. (2025) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70039 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Liebherr, M., Gößwein, E., Kannen, C., Babiker, A., Al-Shakhsi, S., Staab, V., Li, B.-J., Ali, R., & Montag, C. (2025) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2025.e41871 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Pei, L., Jong, M. S., Shang, J., & Ouyang, G. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13535 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
TennBasTech: A Scientific Approach to Teach Tennis
Mulya, G., Lengkana, A. S., & Agustryani, R. (2021) · International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences · doi:10.13189/saj.2021.090633 · Cited by 8
“Based on the research conducted by [13], the condition occurs when media is presented to students with low prior knowledge or aptitude in the domain being studied.”
BackgroundHwang, W., Nguyen, T.-R.-G., & Shadiev, R. (2026) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1002/jcal.70208 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Comparison of input modes: L2 comprehension and cognitive load
Karabıyık, C., Arslan, S., & Kavaklı, N. (2022) · Participatory Educational Research · doi:10.17275/per.22.134.9.6 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“There are several proposed measures but among them, the subjective measures (e.g., self-rating scale) are the most used references (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”
BackgroundHong, J., Ye, J.-N., Ye, J., & Kung, L.-W. (2022) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2022.2076128 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“That is, a task modulates the cognitive load can introduce con fl ict between the stimulus location and the response e ff ect direction (Sankaranarayanan et al., in press); the speed of processing messages can re fl ect cognitive load immediately (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”
BackgroundTask difficulty impact on multitasking in mixed reality environments
Abbas, S., & Jeong, H. (2024) · Computers & Education X Reality · doi:10.1016/j.cexr.2024.100065 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kassaw, C., & Демарева, В. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0335968 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The executive function and cognitive load theory supports working memory and attentional control are a central component of executive functions vital for problem solving and handling huge informations without difficulty [19].”
Li, H., Luo, X. R., Lowry, P. B., & Zhang, J. (2025) · Information & Management · doi:10.1016/j.im.2025.104133 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Wang, G., Tian, L., Liu, J., Nie, S., & Yu, S. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06577-2 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Jin, S., Zhong, Z., Li, K., & Kang, C. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-12719-7 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Additionally, cognitive load theory suggests that learners’ working memory capacity is limited, and excessive cognitive load hinders effective learning (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”
Cognitive load in asynchronous discussions of an online undergraduate STEM course
Faulconer, E. K., Bolch, C., & Wood, B. L. (2022) · Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning · doi:10.1108/jrit-02-2022-0010 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Ginting, D., Barella, Y., Linarsih, A., & Woods, R. (2021) · doi:10.2991/assehr.k.211028.100 · Cited by 6
Arztmann, M., Alfaro, J. L. D., Hornstra, L., Wong, J., Jeuring, J. T., & Liesbeth Kester, A. (2025) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13565 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Kasperski, R., & Ben‐Yehudah, G. (2024) · Journal of Education for Teaching International Research and Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/02607476.2024.2323583 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“However, some institutions are deterred because of robust findings that online learning is associated with high cognitive load and feelings of disorientation (Anmarkrud, Andresen, and Bråten 2019; Grangeia et al. 2016).”
Chen, Y., Zhang, L., & Mao, C. (2022) · International Conference on Big Data and Education (ICBDE) · doi:10.1145/3524383.3524447 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Objective measures of cognitive load involve an analysis of performance outcome, behavioral patterns, and physiological conditions related to the learning process [21, 22].”
BackgroundWu, C. C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.741088 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Zooming to work or working to Zoom: relations between Zoom fatigue, cognitive load, and boredom
Park, M. J., Calistro, T., & Lipnevich, A. A. (2025) · Research Papers in Education · doi:10.1080/02671522.2025.2507592 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“These have been used extensively in educational research to examine how instructional design, task complexity, and learner characteristics influence cognitive processing (Anmarkrud, Andresen, and Bråten 2019).”
Technique Skill Practice Model Filanesia-Based Football
Hadinata, R., Lubis, J., Setiawan, I., Samsudin, Asmawi, M., & Daya, W. J. (2023) · Journal of Law and Sustainable Development · doi:10.55908/sdgs.v11i3.609 · Cited by 4
An, G., & Shan, M. (2023) · Culture and Education · doi:10.1080/11356405.2023.2180245 · Cited by 4
“…pedagógicas multimedia ayudan a percibir y asimilar la información a través de la mediación intensa de los sistemas visual y auditivo con la participación de distintas partes de córtex cerebral y la activación de un gran número de conexiones neurales (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; Soemer, 2016).”
BackgroundRagazou, V., & Karasavvidis, I. (2021) · Interactive Technology and Smart Education · doi:10.1108/itse-05-2021-0091 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Assessing learning effort with hand motion tracking methods
Rheem, H., Becker, D. V., & Craig, S. (2021) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3784 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Learning With Diagrams and Visualizations: Visual, Learner, and Contextual Factors
Menéndez, D. (2026) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.70037 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Şimşek, A. C., Merkt, M., Sondermann, C., & Huff, M. (2026) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-026-06917-6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Podcasts in business education: Examining their impact on student learning and performance
Leenheer, J. (2026) · Journal of Education for Business · doi:10.1080/08832323.2026.2631646 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Whereas CLT explains the effectiveness of learnings that makes valuable connections, CMLT shows the value of balancing the auditory and visual channel in learning, such as in podcasts.”
InfluentialShort Bursts, Big Impact: Exploring Microlearning’s Potential in Malaysian Higher Education
Halim, F. S. A., & Luaran, J. (2024) · Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities · doi:10.47405/mjssh.v9i8.2932 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The brain has two key memory systems: working memory, crucial for processing and temporarily storing information (Alloway, 2009; Anmarkrud et al., 2019), and long-term memory, which organises and retrieves information (comprehending, storing, and retrieving new knowledge), are pivotal in learning…”
BackgroundOlayiwola, J., Yusuf, A. O., Akanmu, A. A., Gonsalves, N. J., & Abraham, Y. S. (2023) · Journal of Construction Engineering and Management · doi:10.1061/jcemd4.coeng-13778 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Ma'ruf, M., Setiawan, A., Suhandi, A., & Siahaan, P. (2021) · Journal of Physics, Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1806/1/012044 · Cited by 3
- Authors
- Anmarkrud, Ø., Andresen, A., & Bråten, I.
- Affiliations
- University of Oslo (NO)
- Corresponding author
- Bråten, Ivar
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2019-02-11
- Volume
- 54
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 61-83
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W2912199704
- Cited by
- 188
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 5
- FWCI
- 19.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Learning Styles and Cognitive Differences
- Keywords
- cognitive load, working memory, multimedia learning, academic performance, cognitive load theory
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