Cognitive Load and Working Memory in Multimedia Learning: Conceptual and Measurement Issues

“Sweller (1988) hypothesized that if learners treat problem solving as the primary task, learning becomes a secondary task, and poorer learning could result from high-demand problem solving.”

“According to this model, working memory consists of four components: the central executive, the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer (Baddeley, 2000).”

“MML theory argues that engagement is directly related to how we ‘feed’ working memory by splitting information over both available processing channels instead of pushing it mainly onto one (Mayer and Moreno 1998; Anmarkrud, Andresen, and Bråten 2019).”

“This happens in two ways: (1) “the visual channel can become overloaded by having to visually scan between pictures and on-screen text”, and (2) “learners expend mental effort in trying to compare the incoming streams of printed and spoken text” (Mayer, 2009, p.”

“Because only limited information can be stored in a person’s working memory, thoughtful arrangement of the VR reading content can be critical [95].”

“Indeed, Anmarkrud et al. (2019) asserted that despite these definitional commonalities, both working memory and cognitive load share inconsistencies in how they're measured, relying on broad statements about their limitations.”

“To support learning with video, you should be intentional about your design in order to reduce extraneous processing and to manage the essential processing of the material [12].”

“Extensive research has demonstrated a significant relationship between workingmemory capacity and academic achievement (Swanson and Alloway, 2012; Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”

“Thus, cognitive load signifies the total amount of WM resources used while a cognitive task is performed [14].”

“Multimedia learning can involve combination of verbal and image representations at various levels of complexity [9].”

“…this was inspired by CL measurement questionnaires from similar studies that were used to measure the three types of the CL and is based on the assumption that people can reliably recognize their cognitive processes and interpret their invested mental efforts (see Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”

“Although CTML principles have demonstrated that such principles reduce cognitive load, working memory, a fundamental component of cognitive load theory, has been rarely conceptualized or measured in multimedia learning (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; Mutlu-Bayraktar et al., 2019).”

“Most multimedia learning studies assumed that learners can accurately monitor and report their own emotional and cognitive states [24, 30].”

“Research on cognitive load in multimedia learning suggests that an increased working memory demand can negatively affect learning outcomes [1].”

“intrinsic load (beban yang melekat pada kompleksitas materi), extraneous load (beban akibat cara penyajian informasi yang tidak efisien), dan germane load (beban yang dialokasikan untuk membangun skema pengetahuan) (Anmarkrud, Andresen, & Bråten, 2019).”

“A strong foundation of understanding can allocate students' cognitive resources to analyse advanced concepts (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Paas et al., 2016; van Nooijen et al., 2024).”

“Anmarkrud et al. (2019), Martin and Ellis (2012), Ruiz et al. (2021), Tang and Chen (2014), Teng et al. (2021), Guan et al. (2021) also found that working memory plays an important role in IVA and retention.”

“…numerous individual differences including: socio-motivation factors (Leutner, 2014; Mayer, 2014; Sanchez & Weber, 2019), prior knowledge (Richter et al., 2018; Seufert et al., 2009; Song et al., 2015), and even differences in various cognitive abilities (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; Wiley et al., 2014).”

“Moreover, new technology offers to improve memory and cognition and compensate for age-related losses (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”

“A twofold consensus has been reached on these three components: (1) they constitute an additive process; and (2) intrinsic load account for the primary work load among learners (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; de Jong, 2010).”

“The theory states that cognitive load is a cognitive resource consumed by learners in the process of information processing (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”

“The most used method involved the use of nine-level Likert scales to measure the overall cognitive load or intrinsic, extraneous or relevant loads (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”

“However, it should be noted that the use of learning resources that are routine without variation will certainly not arouse students' interest in independent study (Anmarkrud, Andresen, & Bråten, 2019).”

“Há estudos consistentes que mostram a hipótese da relação entre carga cognitiva e aprendizagem multimidia (Anmarkrud, Andresen, & Bråten, 2019).”

“Moreover, content delivery is presented in such a way that it is assimilated by the student within a given time frame and classroom learning environment that agrees with other research findings (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”

“Cognitive Load Theory similarly highlights the limited capacity of working memory and the importance of organizing instructional information in ways that reduce avoidable cognitive demands (Sweller et al., 2019; Skulmowski & Xu, 2022; Mutlu-Bayraktar et al., 2019; Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”

“Subjective measures are the most commonly used methods for CL measurement (Anmarkrud et al. 2019; Kok and Jarodzka 2017).”

“…interfaces, split-attention effects, and redundant information in multimedia resources can generate extraneous cognitive load, leaving insufficient working memory resources for germane processes related to knowledge construction (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2018; Skulmowski & Xu, 2022).”

“…modes can support one another when learners are helped to coordinate information without unnecessary load (Moreno & Mayer, 1999, 2002; Tabbers et al., 2004), but may become less useful when additional modalities are poorly aligned with task demands and processing capacity (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”

“Instructions should be prepared in such a way that they reduces extraneous load, match intrinsic load withthe students’ capabilities, and increase germane load for schema construction (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”

“CLT explains that learning effectiveness is influenced by the limited capacity of working memory to process new information (Anmarkrud et al., 2019; Choi & Lee, 2022).”

“When acquiring new knowledge, all incoming information must pass through working memory (WM), which has a highly limited capacity [12], before it can be understood and encoded into long-term memory.”

“From the perspective of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), the number of media elements used does not determine instructional effectiveness; rather, it is the instructional design's ability to manage students' working memory capacity optimally (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”

“Such alignment reduces cognitive load [24, 38] and improves comprehension by directing attention to the most pertinent content.”

“According to cognitive load theory, when cognitive load exceeds working memory capacity, the quality of learning declines (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”

“…have received from researchers in other forms of multimedia learning (e.g., captioned video, Teng, 2024; multimodal flashcards, Teng & Zhang, 2023; see Anmarkrud et al., 2019, for a review) and in other gloss parameters (e.g., gloss location and information type, Ünal, 2023; Varol & Erҫetin, 2021).”

“…questionnaires have been utilized as a subjective measure of cognitive load (Brünken et al., 2003) based on the assumption that “people are able to evaluate their own cognitive processes and provide a valid estimate of the cognitive load imposed by a task” (Anmarkrud et al., 2019, p. 65).”

“As a result, learning objectives should focus on reducing working memory capacity rather than increasing it for learning outcomes (Anmarkrud et al., 2019).”

“Cluster and Rasch Model (Winsteps) on Chemical Materials Through Zoom Meeting http://dx.doi.org/10.32585/jkp.v6i2.2474 | 99 The results obtained are very close to the results of previous research, interaction with theory as well as the ability of students to develop their own knowledge, this is in accordance with Cons…”