When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples.
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Interactions between levels of learner knowledge in a domain and levels of instructional guidance were investigated. Inexperienced mechanical trade apprentices were presented with either a series of worked examples to study or problems to solve. On subsequent tests, inexperienced trainees benefited most from the worked examples condition, with this group performing better with lower ratings of mental load than similar trainees who solved problems. With more experience in the domain, worked examples became redundant and problem solving proved superior. It is suggested that the relative effectiveness of either worked examples or problem solving depends heavily on levels of learner knowledge.
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The worked-example effect first disappears and then reverses as the learners' expertise increases.
“Second, the worked-example effect first disappears and then reverses as the learners' expertise increases.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
Problem solving only becomes relatively effective when learners are sufficiently experienced so that studying a worked example is, for them, a redundant activity that increases working memory load compared to generating a known solution.
“Problem solving only becomes relatively effective when learners are sufficiently experienced so that studying a worked example is, for them, a redundant activity that increases working memory load compared to generating a known solution”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
Instructional formats that help novices can lose effectiveness and even harm more knowledgeable learners, the expertise reversal effect.
“Instructional formats that are beneficial for novice learners lose their effectiveness and can even have negative consequences for more knowledgeable learners (i.e., expertise reversal effect; Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003;Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001;Leppink, Broers, Imbos, Van der Vleuten, & Berger, 2012a, 2012b, 2013b).”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
A given instructional feature may be linked to germane load for one learner and extraneous load for another, as the expertise reversal effect shows.
“Further, when referring to one very specific instructional feature or cognitive process to measure extraneous cognitive load or germane cognitive load, a conceptual problem may arise, because the expertise reversal effect illustrates that a particular instructional feature may be associated with germane cognitive load for one learner and with extraneous cognitive load for another learner (Kalyuga”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Kalyuga et al., 2001
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Tuovinen, J. E., & Paas, F. (2004) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/b:truc.0000021813.24669.62 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
“In other studies (Camp, Paas, Rikers and Van Merriënboer 2001; Salden, Paas, Broers and Van Merriënboer, 2004, this issue) both the effort and performance derivation were modified. They combined the learning performance and the learning effort in the Paas and Van Merriënboer (1993) efficiency algorithm.”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citationStudent Learning: What Has Instruction Got to Do With It?
Lee, H. S., & Anderson, J. R. (2012) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143833 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
“However, the low-ability learners never proceduralized necessary skills within skills, and they performed poorly regardless of the type of learning environment Kalyuga et al. (2001) examined the interaction between instructional guidance and learners’ knowledge level .”
BackgroundKalyuga, S., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9195-x · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Self-citationTiming and Frequency of Mental Effort Measurement: Evidence in Favour of Repeated Measures
van Gog, T., Kirschner, F., Kester, L., & Paas, F. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2883 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
The worked-example effect using ill-defined problems: Learning to recognise designers' styles
Rourke, A. J., & Sweller, J. (2008) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.03.006 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“We did not obtain an expertise reversal effect in these experiments (Kalyuga et al., 2001).”
MethodSelf-citationCognitive Load Theory: New Directions and Challenges
Ayres, P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2882 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
The Expertise Reversal Principle in Multimedia Learning
Kalyuga, S. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.028 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Self-citationHoogerheide, V., van Wermeskerken, M., Loyens, S. M. M., & van Gog, T. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.02.004 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Cognitive load theory: Practical implications and an important challenge
Leppink, J. (2017) · Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jtumed.2017.05.003 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
“However, this beneficial effect of support among novice learners disappears and eventually reverses when applied to more advanced learners.(35,36) When we ask learners to do an objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) with possible diagnoses in mind and to explicitly engage in forward (i.”
BackgroundWord Problem-Solving Instruction in Inclusive Third-Grade Mathematics Classrooms
Griffin, C. C., & Jitendra, A. K. (2008) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.3200/joer.102.3.187-202 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Song, H. S., Kalet, A. L., & Plass, J. L. (2015) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12117 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
An Open Repository and analysis tools for fine-grained, longitudinal learner data.
Koedinger, K. R., Cunningham, K., Skogsholm, A., & Leber, B. (2008) · Educational Data Mining · Cited by 108 · see citing works
McLaren, B. M., Lim, S.-J., & Koedinger, K. R. (2008) · Cited by 107 · see citing works
McLaren, B. M., van Gog, T., Ganoe, C. H., Karabinos, M., & Yaron, D. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.038 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Learning from worked-examples in mathematics: students relate procedures to principles
Renkl, A. (2017) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-017-0859-3 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Martin, A. J., Durksen, T. L., Williamson, D., Kiss, J., & Ginns, P. (2016) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21332 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Getting the point: Tracing worked examples enhances learning
Hu, F., Ginns, P., & Bobis, J. (2014) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.10.002 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Problem-solving or Explicit Instruction: Which Should Go First When Element Interactivity Is High?
Ashman, G., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09500-5 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Self-citationAtkinson, R. K., & Renkl, A. (2007) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-007-9055-2 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“Research conducted over the past 20 years has consistently documented that worked examples not only represent a highly-valued source of instruction by learners (e.g., LeFevre and Dixon 1986; Pirolli and Anderson 1985; Recker and Pirolli 1995) but an effective one as well (for an overview see Atkinson et al. 2000), par…”
BackgroundAn integrated model of multimedia effects on learning.
Hede, A. (2002) · USC Research Bank (University of the Sunshine Coast) · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Prior Knowledge Principle in Multimedia Learning
Kalyuga, S. (2005) · The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.022 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Self-citationMatlen, B. J., & Klahr, D. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9248-z · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“problems (Kalyuga et al. 2001; Kalyuga and Sweller 2004).”
BackgroundTwelve tips for medical curriculum design from a cognitive load theory perspective
Leppink, J., & Duvivier, R. (2016) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.3109/0142159x.2015.1132829 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“From the robust finding that the need for instructional support on a type of learning task of a given complexity decreases as learners advance (Kalyuga et al. 2001, 2003), it follows that one should start with relatively high support and gradually fade that support for that type of learning task…”
BackgroundMethodA Test of the Testing Effect: Acquiring Problem‐Solving Skills From Worked Examples
van Gog, T., & Kester, L. (2012) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12002 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Smits, M. H. S. B., Boon, J., Sluijsmans, D. M. A., & van Gog, T. (2008) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820701365952 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“Consequently, at higher levels of prior knowledge students’ learning starts to benefit more from minimally guided or unguided instruction such as problem solving than from guided instruction such as worked examples (Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001; Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller, 2001).”
BackgroundToward a Learning Science for Complex Crowdsourcing Tasks
Doroudi, S., Kamar, E. S., Brunskill, E., & Horvitz, E. (2016) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/2858036.2858268 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“While the expertise reversal effect claims that for more advanced students the opposite is true—solving problems is more effective than reviewing examples [12]— more recent work demonstrated that in a less-structured domain, the worked example effect holds for both novices and advanced students [21].”
ResultInteractions among the imagination, expertise reversal, and element interactivity effects.
Leahy, W., & Sweller, J. (2005) · Journal of experimental psychology. Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.11.4.266 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Self-citationWang, D., Han, H. D., Zhan, Z., Xu, J. B., Liu, Q., & Ren, G. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.003 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
More confusion and frustration, better learning: The impact of erroneous examples
Richey, J., Andres-Bray, J., Mogessie, M., Scruggs, R., Andres, J., Star, J., Baker, R., & McLaren, B. (2019) · Comput. Educ. · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.05.012 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Practice problems were included based on worked-examples literature that has shown that students benefit from tackling practice problems after studying worked examples (Kalyuga et al., 2001; Renkl & Atkinson, 2003; McLaren et al., 2008).”
MethodNievelstein, F., van Gog, T., DIJCK, G. V., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2012) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.12.004 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“Because processing redundant worked-out steps induces ineffective working memory load and also prevents students from practicing with problem solving by themselves from which more advanced students’ learning might still benefit, learning is hampered for advanced students by example study relative to problem solving (K…”
Learning from video modeling examples: does gender matter?
Hoogerheide, V., Loyens, S. M. M., & van Gog, T. (2015) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-015-9360-y · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“1 Note that for students who have some prior knowledge of solving probability calculation problems, examples would lose their effectiveness or may even start to hamper learning compared to practice problem solving (Kalyuga et al. 2001; this is an example of the expertise-reversal effect; see Kalyuga et al. 2003; Kalyu…”
BackgroundReanalyzing the expertise reversal effect
Schnotz, W. (2009) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9104-y · Cited by 85 · see citing works
How to sequence video modeling examples and inquiry tasks to foster scientific reasoning
Kant, J. M., Scheiter, K., & Oschatz, K. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.04.005 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Paas, F., Van Gerven, P. W. M., & Wouters, P. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1349 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Teaching the Teacher: Tutoring SimStudent Leads to More Effective Cognitive Tutor Authoring
Matsuda, N., Cohen, W. W., & Koedinger, K. R. (2014) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-014-0020-1 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“The results from the Simulation Study also provide a theoretical account for the benefit of learning by guided-problem solving over learning from examples (Atkinson et al. 2003; Kalyuga et al. 2001).”
ResultWorked example effects in individual and group work settings
Retnowati, E., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2010) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443411003659960 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Problem-solving can be effective when learners gain sufficient expertise (Kalyuga et al., 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citationRelations between the worked example and generation effects on immediate and delayed tests
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.06.007 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Self-citationvan Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Kester, L. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.006 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Designing for fake news literacy training: A problem-based undergraduate online-course
Scheibenzuber, C., Hofer, S. I., & Nistor, N. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106796 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Leahy, W., Hanham, J., & Sweller, J. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9296-4 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Self-citationFeng, M., Heffernan, N. T., & Koedinger, K. R. (2006) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11774303_4 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Learning from Worked-Out Examples and Problem Solving
Renkl, A., & Atkinson, R. K. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.007 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Sweller, J. (2007) · UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) · doi:10.4324/9780203880869.ch31 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“As an instance, studying worked examples is better than solving the equivalent problems for novices, but with increased expertise solving problems becomes better than studying examples (Kalyuga et al., 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe effects of digital learning material on students’ mathematics learning in vocational education
Zwart, D. P., Luit, J. E. H. V., Noroozi, O., & Goei, S. L. (2017) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2017.1313581 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
- Authors
- Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., & Sweller, J.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2001-09
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 579-588
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2007377366
- Cited by
- 548
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 29 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 10.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- handle.unsw.edu.au
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Human Factors and Ergonomics › Innovative Education and Learning Practices
- Keywords
- worked examples, problem solving, student knowledge, instructional guidance, mental workload, prior experience, skill acquisition, apprenticeship
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