The DOI matches its Crossref record.
A Ladder Of Citizen Participation
Abstract
The heated controversy over “citizen participation,” “citizen control”, and “maximum feasible involvement of the poor,” has been waged largely in terms of exacerbated rhetoric and misleading euphemisms. To encourage a more enlightened dialogue, a typology of citizen participation is offered using examples from three federal social programs: urban renewal, anti-poverty, and Model Cities. The typology, which is designed to be provocative, is arranged in a ladder pattern with each rung corresponding to the extent of citizens' power in determining the plan and/or program.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Her typology clearly demonstrated that not all participation is of equal value and that, at the time of her original authorship, tokenism dominated as the method through which the majority of citizens most likely participated in the policy process.”
From The Value of a Communitarian Approach to Public Library Board Governance: Rejecting Current Neoliberal Practice / La valeur d’une approche communautariste de la gouvernance du conseil d’administration d’une bibliothèque publique : Le rejet de la pratique néolibérale actuelle (2012) · cites this paper as Arnstein (1969)
In the citing paper
“The classical example of the ladder model is Hart's Ladder of Children's Participation, 48 which was published in 1992 and based on Arnstein's Ladder of Citizen Participation first published in 1969. 87”
From A systematic review of theories, models and frameworks used for youth engagement in health research (2024) · cites this paper as [87]
In the citing paper
“The strengthening democracy rationale flows from participatory and deliberative theories that perceive democracy as a process of building civic capital and stronger democratic institutions (Arnstein, 1969; B. R. Barber, 2004; Pateman, 1970).”
From Between promise and practice: a scoping review of the democratic outcomes of youth participation in local governance (2026) · cites this paper as Arnstein, 1969
In the citing paper
“This aligns with Arnstein ' s (1969) and Hart ' s (1992) foundational work on participation ladders and extends them by highlighting how participation outcomes are shaped by context and vary across dimensions”
From Between promise and practice: a scoping review of the democratic outcomes of youth participation in local governance (2026) · cites this paper as Arnstein ' s (1969)
Citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Stakeholder participation for environmental management: A literature review
Reed, M. S. (2008) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.07.014 · Cited by 4,689
Varieties of Participation in Complex Governance
Fung, A. (2006) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00667.x · Cited by 2,464
Using Community-Based Participatory Research to Address Health Disparities
Wallerstein, N. B., & Duran, B. (2006) · Health Promotion Practice · doi:10.1177/1524839906289376 · Cited by 2,243
Beyond Engagement and Participation: User and Community Coproduction of Public Services
Bovaird, T. (2007) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2007.00773.x · Cited by 2,061
Citizen Participation in Decision Making: Is It Worth the Effort?
Irvin, R. A., & Stansbury, J. (2004) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2004.00346.x · Cited by 1,941
A Typology of Public Engagement Mechanisms
Rowe, G., & Frewer, L. J. (2005) · Science Technology & Human Values · doi:10.1177/0162243904271724 · Cited by 1,860
Unpacking 'Participation': models, meanings and practices
Cornwall, A. (2008) · Community Development Journal · doi:10.1093/cdj/bsn010 · Cited by 1,725
Morsing, M., & Schultz, M. (2006) · Business Ethics: A European Review · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8608.2006.00460.x · Cited by 1,653
Artificial Intelligence in Architectural Design
Indonesia, U. K., Harapan, A., Indriani, D., Rizkiya, N. F., & Azbi, R. M. (2021) · International Journal of Design · doi:10.34010/injudes.v1i1.4824 · Cited by 1,633
Reframing public participation: strategies for the 21st century
Innes, J. E., & Booher, D. E. (2004) · Planning Theory & Practice · doi:10.1080/1464935042000293170 · Cited by 1,748
The specificity of the scientific field and the social conditions of the progress of reason
Bourdieu, P. (1975) · Social Science Information · doi:10.1177/053901847501400602 · Cited by 1,483
Public Participation in Scientific Research: a Framework for Deliberate Design
Shirk, J., Ballard, H., Wilderman, C., Phillips, T., Wiggins, A., Jordan, R., McCallie, E., Minarchek, M., Lewenstein, B., Krasny, M., et al. (2012) · Ecology and Society · doi:10.5751/es-04705-170229 · Cited by 1,317
Environmental Entitlements: Dynamics and Institutions in Community-Based Natural Resource Management
Leach, M., Mearns, R., & Scoones, I. (1999) · World Development · doi:10.1016/s0305-750x(98)00141-7 · Cited by 1,496
Accountability In Practice: Mechanisms for NGOs
Ebrahim, A. (2003) · World Development · doi:10.1016/s0305-750x(03)00014-7 · Cited by 1,455
Voinov, A., & Bousquet, F. (2010) · Environmental Modelling & Software · doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2010.03.007 · Cited by 1,354
Linders, D. (2012) · Government Information Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.giq.2012.06.003 · Cited by 1,339
Engaging patients to improve quality of care: a systematic review
Bombard, Y., Baker, G. R., Orlando, E., Fancott, C. A., Bhatia, P., Casalino, S., Oñate, K., Denis, J., & Pomey, M. (2018) · Implementation Science · doi:10.1186/s13012-018-0784-z · Cited by 1,312
Blake, J. (1999) · Local Environment · doi:10.1080/13549839908725599 · Cited by 1,289
Pathways to participation: openings, opportunities and obligations
Shier, H. (2001) · Children & Society · doi:10.1002/chi.617 · Cited by 1,265
Co-management: concepts and methodological implications
Carlsson, L., & Berkes, F. (2005) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2004.11.008 · Cited by 1,261
Public Participation Geographic Information Systems: A Literature Review and Framework
Sieber, R. E. (2006) · Annals of the Association of American Geographers · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2006.00702.x · Cited by 1,214
A Group Process Model for Problem Identification and Program Planning
Delbecq, A. L., & de Ven, A. H. V. (1971) · The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science · doi:10.1177/002188637100700404 · Cited by 1,185
Citizen Science and Volunteered Geographic Information: Overview and Typology of Participation
Haklay, M. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4587-2_7 · Cited by 1,133
Stakeholder Engagement: Beyond the Myth of Corporate Responsibility
Greenwood, M. (2007) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-007-9509-y · Cited by 1,061
Greenhalgh, T., Hinton, L., Finlay, T., Macfarlane, A., Fahy, N., Clyde, B., & Chant, A. (2019) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.12888 · Cited by 1,059
Identifying and Defining the Dimensions of Community Capacity to Provide a Basis for Measurement
Goodman, R. M., Speers, M. A., McLeroy, K. R., Fawcett, S. B., Kegler, M. C., Parker, E. A., Smith, S. R., Sterling, T. D., & Wallerstein, N. B. (1998) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/109019819802500303 · Cited by 1,010
From tokenism to empowerment: progressing patient and public involvement in healthcare improvement
Ocloo, J. E., & Matthews, R. (2016) · BMJ Quality & Safety · doi:10.1136/bmjqs-2015-004839 · Cited by 1,015
Influence analysis of community resident support for sustainable tourism development
Lee, T. H. (2012) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.03.007 · Cited by 1,003
Castro, E. M., Regenmortel, T. V., Vanhaecht, K., Sermeus, W., & Hecke, A. V. (2016) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2016.07.026 · Cited by 955
Huitema, D., Mostert, E., Egas, W., Moellenkamp, S., Pahl-Wostl, C., & Yalcin, R. (2009) · Ecology and Society · doi:10.5751/es-02827-140126 · Cited by 912
Stakeholder collaboration and heritage management
Aas, C., Ladkin, A., & Fletcher, J. (2005) · Annals of Tourism Research · doi:10.1016/j.annals.2004.04.005 · Cited by 888
Evaluating Public-Participation Exercises: A Research Agenda
Rowe, G., & Frewer, L. J. (2004) · Science Technology & Human Values · doi:10.1177/0162243903259197 · Cited by 882
Participatory Research Methods: A Methodological Approach in Motion
Bergold, J., & Thomas, S. (2012) · Social Science Open Access Repository (GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences) · doi:10.12759/hsr.37.2012.4.191-222 · Cited by 873
Engagement through partnership: students as partners in learning and teaching in higher education
Bryson, C. (2016) · The International Journal for Academic Development · doi:10.1080/1360144x.2016.1124966 · Cited by 868
Political power and renewable energy futures: A critical review
Burke, M. J., & Stephens, J. C. (2017) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2017.10.018 · Cited by 824
Cardullo, P., & Kitchin, R. (2018) · GeoJournal · doi:10.1007/s10708-018-9845-8 · Cited by 979
Whose Voices? Whose Choices? Reflections on Gender and Participatory Development
Cornwall, A. (2003) · World Development · doi:10.1016/s0305-750x(03)00086-x · Cited by 804
The snakes and ladders of user involvement: Moving beyond Arnstein
Tritter, J. Q., & McCallum, A. K. (2005) · Health Policy · doi:10.1016/j.healthpol.2005.05.008 · Cited by 795
Making the future together: Shaping autism research through meaningful participation
Fletcher-Watson, S., Adams, J., Brook, K., Charman, T., Crane, L., Cusack, J., Leekam, S., Milton, D., Parr, J. R., & Pellicano, E. (2019) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361318786721 · Cited by 776
Public Deliberation in an Age of Direct Citizen Participation
Roberts, N. (2004) · The American Review of Public Administration · doi:10.1177/0275074004269288 · Cited by 822
A Community-Based Tourism Model: Its Conception and Use
Okazaki, E. (2008) · Journal of Sustainable Tourism · doi:10.1080/09669580802159594 · Cited by 770
Byrd, E. T. (2007) · Tourism Review · doi:10.1108/16605370780000309 · Cited by 765
Reed, M. S., Vella, S., Challies, E., de Vente, J., Frewer, L. J., Hohenwallner, D., Huber, T., Neumann, R. K., Oughton, E. A., del Ceno, J. S., et al. (2017) · Restoration Ecology · doi:10.1111/rec.12541 · Cited by 753
Torfing, J., Sørensen, E., & Røiseland, A. (2019) · Administration & Society · doi:10.1177/0095399716680057 · Cited by 585
Expected nature of community participation in tourism development
Tosun, C. (2005) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2004.12.004 · Cited by 706
Linking Knowledge and Action for Sustainable Development
van Kerkhoff, L. E., & Lebel, L. (2006) · Annual Review of Environment and Resources · doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.31.102405.170850 · Cited by 695
Public participation and climate change adaptation: avoiding the illusion of inclusion
Few, R., Brown, K. M., & Tompkins, E. L. (2007) · Climate Policy · doi:10.1080/14693062.2007.9685637 · Cited by 699
Bovill, C., Cook-Sather, A., Felten, P., Millard, L., & Moore-Cherry, N. (2016) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-015-9896-4 · Cited by 685
Photovoice as Community-Based Participatory Research: A Qualitative Review
Hergenrather, K. C. (2009) · American Journal of Health Behavior · doi:10.5993/ajhb.33.6.6 · Cited by 657
Collaboration in local tourism policymaking
Bramwell, B., & Sharman, A. (1999) · Annals of Tourism Research · doi:10.1016/s0160-7383(98)00105-4 · Cited by 644
Bovaird, T., & Loeffler, E. (2012) · VOLUNTAS International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations · doi:10.1007/s11266-012-9309-6 · Cited by 687
O’Faircheallaigh, C. (2009) · Environmental Impact Assessment Review · doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2009.05.001 · Cited by 638
Making Plans that Matter: Citizen Involvement and Government Action
Burby, R. J. (2003) · Journal of the American Planning Association · doi:10.1080/01944360308976292 · Cited by 632
Designing Public Participation Processes
Bryson, J. M., Quick, K. S., Slotterback, C. S., & Crosby, B. C. (2013) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2012.02678.x · Cited by 626
Unpacking “Participation” in the Adaptive Management of Social–ecological Systems: a Critical Review
Stringer, L., Dougill, A., Fraser, E., Hubacek, K., Prell, C., & Reed, M. (2006) · Ecology and Society · doi:10.5751/es-01896-110239 · Cited by 718
The Question of Participation: Toward Authentic Public Participation in Public Administration
King, C. S., Feltey, K. M., & Susel, B. O. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429501036-20 · Cited by 613
A conceptual map of political participation
van Deth, J. W. (2014) · Acta Politica · doi:10.1057/ap.2014.6 · Cited by 610
Self-organization in urban development: towards a new perspective on spatial planning
Boonstra, B., & Boelens, L. (2011) · Urban Research & Practice · doi:10.1080/17535069.2011.579767 · Cited by 609
Israel, B. A., Parker, E. A., Rowe, Z. E., Salvatore, A. L., Minkler, M., López, J., Butz, A. M., Mosley, A. M., Coates, L., Lambert, G. H., et al. (2005) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.7675 · Cited by 634
Modelling with stakeholders – Next generation
Voinov, A. A., Kolagani, N., McCall, M. K., Glynn, P. D., Kragt, M. E., Ostermann, F., Pierce, S. A., & Ramu, P. (2015) · Environmental Modelling & Software · doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2015.11.016 · Cited by 642
O’Mara-Eves, A., Brunton, G., Oliver, S. R., Kavanagh, J., Jamal, F., & Thomas, J. (2015) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-015-1352-y · Cited by 584
Authoritarian environmentalism and China's response to climate change
Gilley, B. (2012) · Environmental Politics · doi:10.1080/09644016.2012.651904 · Cited by 570
Nilsen, E. S., Myrhaug, H. T., Johansen, M., Oliver, S. R., & Oxman, A. D. (2006) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd004563.pub2 · Cited by 565
Social learning towards a sustainable world
Dyball, R., Brown, V., & Keen, M. (2007) · Wageningen Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.3920/978-90-8686-594-9 · Cited by 771
Examining Citizen Participation: Local Participatory Policy Making and Democracy
Michels, A., & de Graaf, L. (2010) · Local Government Studies · doi:10.1080/03003930.2010.494101 · Cited by 631
Jamal, T. B., & Stronza, A. L. (2009) · Journal of Sustainable Tourism · doi:10.1080/09669580802495741 · Cited by 604
A Typology of Youth Participation and Empowerment for Child and Adolescent Health Promotion
Wong, N. T., Zimmerman, M. A., & Parker, E. A. (2010) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10464-010-9330-0 · Cited by 545
Rydin, Y., & Pennington, M. (2000) · Local Environment · doi:10.1080/13549830050009328 · Cited by 546
E‐Participation, Transparency, and Trust in Local Government
Kim, S., & Lee, J. (2012) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2012.02593.x · Cited by 614
Community Participation Methods in Design and Planning
Yabes, R. A. (2000) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/s0169-2046(00)00063-3 · Cited by 546
The meaning of patient involvement and participation in health care consultations: A taxonomy
Thompson, A. G. H. (2006) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.11.002 · Cited by 539
Lasker, R. D. (2003) · Journal of Heredity · doi:10.1093/jurban/jtg014 · Cited by 558
Sustainable community development: integrating environmental, economic, and social objectives
Roseland, M. (2000) · Progress in Planning · doi:10.1016/s0305-9006(00)00003-9 · Cited by 537
Osborne, S. P., & Strokosch, K. (2013) · British Journal of Management · doi:10.1111/1467-8551.12010 · Cited by 579
Cooperating Teacher Participation in Teacher Education
Clarke, A., Triggs, V., & Nielsen, W. (2013) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654313499618 · Cited by 675
Residents' Attitudes Toward Tourism and Perceived Personal Benefits in a Rural Community
Wang, Y., & Pfister, R. E. (2008) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/0047287507312402 · Cited by 527
Public perceptions of and responses to new energy technologies
Boudet, H. S. (2019) · Nature Energy · doi:10.1038/s41560-019-0399-x · Cited by 523
A framework for interpreting social media interactions in the public sector
Mergel, I. A. (2013) · Government Information Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.giq.2013.05.015 · Cited by 604
Truths and myths about community participation in post-disaster housing projects
Davidson, C. H., Johnson, C., Lizarralde, G., Dikmen, N., & Sliwinski, A. (2006) · Habitat International · doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2006.08.003 · Cited by 518
Consumer involvement in health research: a review and research agenda
Boote, J. D., Telford, R., & Cooper, C. L. (2002) · Health Policy · doi:10.1016/s0168-8510(01)00214-7 · Cited by 523
Community participation in tourism planning
Simmons, D. G. (1994) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/0261-5177(94)90003-5 · Cited by 512
STS education: international perspectives on reform
(1995) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.32-4023 · Cited by 510
Checkoway, B. (2011) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.09.017 · Cited by 513
From Transitional to Transformative Justice: A New Agenda for Practice
Gready, P., & Robins, S. (2014) · International Journal of Transitional Justice · doi:10.1093/ijtj/iju013 · Cited by 507
Energy democracy: Goals and policy instruments for sociotechnical transitions
Burke, M. J., & Stephens, J. C. (2017) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2017.09.024 · Cited by 502
Information and Empowerment: The Keys to Achieving Sustainable Tourism
Cole, S. (2006) · Journal of Sustainable Tourism · doi:10.2167/jost607.0 · Cited by 502
Assessing the evidence for stakeholder engagement in biodiversity conservation
Sterling, E., Betley, E., Sigouin, A., Gomez, A., Toomey, A., Cullman, G., Malone, C., Pekor, A., Arengo, F., Blair, M., et al. (2017) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2017.02.008 · Cited by 432
Collins, K., & Ison, R. L. (2009) · Environmental Policy and Governance · doi:10.1002/eet.523 · Cited by 533
Transboundary water interaction I: reconsidering conflict and cooperation
Zeitoun, M., & Mirumachi, N. (2008) · International Environmental Agreements Politics Law and Economics · doi:10.1007/s10784-008-9083-5 · Cited by 511
Tools and methods in participatory modeling: Selecting the right tool for the job
Voinov, A., Jenni, K., Gray, S., Kolagani, N., Glynn, P. D., Bommel, P., Prell, C., Zellner, M., Paolisso, M., Jordan, R., et al. (2018) · Environmental Modelling & Software · doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2018.08.028 · Cited by 428
A framework to implement Stakeholder participation in environmental projects
Luyet, V., Schlaepfer, R., Parlange, M. B., & Buttler, A. (2012) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.06.026 · Cited by 469
Developing and applying a framework to evaluate participatory research for sustainability
Blackstock, K., Kelly, G. J., & Horsey, B. (2006) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.05.014 · Cited by 497
O’Mara-Eves, A., Brunton, G., McDaid, D., Oliver, S. R., Kavanagh, J., Jamal, F., Matosevic, T., Harden, A., & Thomas, J. (2013) · Public Health Research · doi:10.3310/phr01040 · Cited by 462
Cardullo, P., & Kitchin, R. (2018) · Environment and Planning C Politics and Space · doi:10.1177/0263774x18806508 · Cited by 438
Tradecraft: Professional writing as problem solving
Musso, J. A., Biller, R. P., & Myrtle, R. C. (2000) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.1002/1520-6688(200023)19:4 · Cited by 8
“Citizen Science”? Rethinking Science and Public Participation
Strasser, B. J., Baudry, J., Mahr, D., Sanchez, G., & Tancoigne, É. (2018) · Science & Technology Studies · doi:10.23987/sts.60425 · Cited by 439
Citizen‐Centered Collaborative Public Management
Cooper, T. L., Bryer, T. A., & Meek, J. W. (2006) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00668.x · Cited by 431
Public perceptions of opportunities for community-based renewable energy projects
Rogers, J. C., Simmons, E., Convery, I., & Weatherall, A. (2008) · Energy Policy · doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.07.028 · Cited by 426
Mapping Public Participation in Policy Choices
Bishop, P., & Davis, G. (2002) · Australian Journal of Public Administration · doi:10.1111/1467-8500.00255 · Cited by 437
The Role of Smart City Characteristics in the Plans of Fifteen Cities
Angelidou, M. (2017) · Journal of Urban Technology · doi:10.1080/10630732.2017.1348880 · Cited by 419
Metadata
- Authors
- Arnstein, S. R.
- Corresponding author
- Arnstein, Sherry R.
- Venue
- Journal of the American Institute of Planners
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1969-07
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 216-224
- ISSN
- 0002-8991 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2008251417
- Cited by
- 17,064
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1187 · 2025: 1177 · 2024: 1134 · 2023: 1123 · 2022: 1080 · 2021: 1124 · 2020: 1117 · 2019: 1065 · 2018: 817 · 2017: 750 · 2016: 728 · 2015: 691 · 2014: 681 · 2013: 618 · 2012: 569
- FWCI
- 103.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of the American Institute of Planners (publishedVersion)
- BIBSYS Brage (BIBSYS (Norway)) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Urban Studies › Urban Planning and Governance
- Social Sciences › Public Administration › Public Policy and Administration Research
- Social Sciences › Geography, Planning and Development › Local Governance and Planning
- Keywords
- citizen participation, citizen control, typology of participation, urban regeneration, anti-poverty policy, Model Cities program, federal social programs, poor people, citizen power, participatory planning
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
