Rethinking teacher education in an AI world: perceptions, readiness and institutional support for generative AI integration
Abstract
The increasing prevalence of Generative AI (GenAI) in education offers significant opportunities for advancements in instructional design and educational innovation. GenAI tools, like ChatGPT, are poised to transform teacher education by reshaping instructional techniques, learning strategies, and assessment methods. However, there is limited research on educational institutions’ responses to GenAI and teacher educators’ readiness to adopt these tools. This study, part of a larger Delphi project, examines the adaptations needed in teacher education programmes to prepare teacher educators for an AI-driven future. Utilising an extensive online questionnaire, data from 138 teacher educators across Europe reveal a critical need for comprehensive support from institutions, highlighting the importance of developing essential AI competencies, adopting innovative pedagogical approaches, and creating policies that responsibly integrate GenAI. These findings provide a foundation for crafting forward-thinking strategies to harness GenAI’s potential in enhancing 21st-century teaching and learning outcomes.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Limited AI literacy and weak institutional support can undermine ethical and consistent classroom integration.
“These benefits also depend on readiness conditions, since limited AI literacy and weak institutional support can undermine ethical and consistent classroom integration, especially where process transparency is required for judging creative development (Ceallaigh et al. 2025).”
From A Study on the Role of Midjourney, A Generative Artificial Intelligence Tool, in Enhancing Student Creativity in Illustration Design Classes (2026) · cites this paper as Ceallaigh et al. 2025
Cites
Vaswani, A., Shazeer, N., Parmar, N., Uszkoreit, J., Jones, L., Gomez, A. N., Kaiser, L., & Polosukhin, I. (2017) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1706.03762 · Cited by 120,404 · see citing works
Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook
(1994) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80231-2 · Cited by 48,420 · see citing works
Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches
ภู่พันธ์, ศ. (2018) · วารสารวิธีวิทยาการวิจัย (Journal of Research Methodology: JRM) · Cited by 12,777 · see citing works
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2012) · APA handbook of research methods in psychology, Vol 2: Research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological. · doi:10.1037/13620-004 · Cited by 10,299 · see citing works
Zawacki-Richter, O., Marín, V. I., Bond, M., & Gouverneur, F. (2019) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-019-0171-0 · Cited by 7,242 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Additionally, GenAI can broaden the range of experiences and social interactions available to educators, TEs, and learners (Zawacki-Richter et al. 2019) beyond what traditional physical learning environments offer.”
Dwivedi, Y. K., Hughes, L., Ismagilova, E., Aarts, G., Coombs, C., Crick, T., Duan, Y., Dwivedi, R., Edwards, J., Eirug, A., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2019.08.002 · Cited by 4,611 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…higher education, such as assessing student work, offering personalised feedback efficiently, and detecting plagiarism to uphold academic integrity (Dwivedi et al. 2021, Naidu and Sevnarayan 2023), it simultaneously raises concerns about academic dishonesty and misuse (Cotton, Cotton, and Shipway…”
Chatting and cheating: Ensuring academic integrity in the era of ChatGPT
Cotton, D. R. E., Cotton, P. A., & Shipway, J. R. (2024) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2023.2190148 · Cited by 3,087 · see citing works
Chatting and Cheating. Ensuring academic integrity in the era of ChatGPT
Cotton, D., Cotton, P., & Shipway, J. R. (2023) · doi:10.35542/osf.io/mrz8h · Cited by 3,079 · see citing works
Elaborating a model of teacher professional growth
Clarke, D., & Hollingsworth, H. (2002) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/s0742-051x(02)00053-7 · Cited by 2,228 · see citing works
Conceptualizing Teacher Professional Learning
Opfer, V. D., & Pedder, D. (2011) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654311413609 · Cited by 1,814 · see citing works
Teddlie, C. B., & Yu, F. (2007) · Journal of Mixed Methods Research · doi:10.1177/1558689806292430 · Cited by 1,772 · see citing works
A SWOT analysis of ChatGPT: Implications for educational practice and research
Farrokhnia, M., Banihashem, S. K., Noroozi, O., & Wals, A. (2024) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2023.2195846 · Cited by 1,384 · see citing works
Lim, W. M., Gunasekara, A., Pallant, J. L., Pallant, J. I., & Pechenkina, E. (2023) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2023.100790 · Cited by 1,261 · see citing works
State of the art and practice in <scp>AI</scp> in education
Holmes, W., & Tuomi, I. (2022) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.12533 · Cited by 1,093 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…national and international policymaking bodies are increasingly engaged in shaping and regulating the AI landscape (e.g. European Commission 2022; Holmes and Tuomi 2022; UNESCO 2023), higher education institutions (HEIs) are still in the process of determining how best to support faculty and…”
Celik, I. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107468 · Cited by 1,012 · see citing works
Artificial Intelligence in Education: The Three Paradigms
Ouyang, F., & Jiao, P. (2021) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100020 · Cited by 991 · see citing works
Expert Opinions in Forecasting: The Role of the Delphi Technique
Rowe, G., & Wright, G. (2001) · International series in management science/operations research/International series in operations research & management science · doi:10.1007/978-0-306-47630-3_7 · Cited by 778 · see citing works
Xie, H., Chu, H.-C., Hwang, G.-J., & Wang, C.-C. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103599 · Cited by 713 · see citing works
Kim, J., Lee, H., & Cho, Y. H. (2022) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-021-10831-6 · Cited by 669 · cited 1× · see citing works
“To address this, educators emphasise the importance of safe platforms, flexible systems, and clear policies for the effective and responsible use of GenAI in schools (Kim, Lee, and Hoan Cho 2022).”
Southworth, J., Migliaccio, K., Glover, J., Glover, J., Reed, D., McCarty, C., Brendemuhl, J., & Thomas, A. (2023) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100127 · Cited by 647 · cited 1× · see citing works
“While a diverse range of AI competency frameworks already exist (e.g. Kong, Cheung, and Tsang 2024; Ng et al. 2021; Southworth et al. 2023; Tenório and Romeike 2023; UNESCO 2023), there remains a significant gap in addressing the bespoke nature of TEs’ roles in the context of GenAI.”
Nazaretsky, T., Ariely, M., Cukurova, M., & Alexandron, G. (2022) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13232 · Cited by 589 · see citing works
Yusuf, A., Pervin, N., & Román-González, M. (2024) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-024-00453-6 · Cited by 554 · cited 3× · see citing works
“The emergence of GenAI adds a new dimen-sion to the evolving educational landscape, driving further reform in teacher education (Lee et al., 2024; Yusuf, Pervin, and Román-González 2024).”
Impact of AI assistance on student agency
Darvishi, A., Khosravi, H., Sadiq, S., Gašević, D., & Siemens, G. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104967 · Cited by 548 · cited 1× · see citing works
“There is concern that extensive use of GenAI tools might reduce students’ active participation in the learning process (Darvishi et al. 2024; A. Nyaaba, Nyaaba, and Nabang 2023).”
Discourses of artificial intelligence in higher education: a critical literature review
Bearman, M., Ryan, J., & Ajjawi, R. (2023) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-022-00937-2 · Cited by 545 · see citing works
The promise and challenges of generative AI in education
Giannakos, M., Azevedo, R., Brusilovsky, P., Cukurova, M., Dimitriadis, Y., Hernandez-Leo, D., Järvelä, S., Mavrikis, M., & Rienties, B. (2025) · Behaviour & Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2024.2394886 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
<scp>AI</scp> Literacy: Definition, Teaching, Evaluation and Ethical Issues
Ng, D. T. K., Leung, J. K. L., Chu, K. W. S., & Qiao, M. S. (2021) · Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/pra2.487 · Cited by 537 · see citing works
Promises and challenges of generative artificial intelligence for human learning
Yan, L., Greiff, S., Teuber, Z., & Gašević, D. (2024) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-024-02004-5 · Cited by 499 · cited 2× · see citing works
“GenAI’s ability to generate diverse, engaging, and high-quality content opens new possibilities for curriculum innovation and enriched learning experiences (Yan et al., 2024).”
Using learning analytics to scale the provision of personalised feedback
Pardo, A., Jovanovic, J., Dawson, S., Gašević, D., & Mirriahi, N. (2019) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12592 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
Assessment in the age of artificial intelligence
Swiecki, Z., Khosravi, H., Chen, G., Martinez-Maldonado, R., Lodge, J. M., Milligan, S., Selwyn, N., & Gašević, D. (2022) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100075 · Cited by 409 · cited 1× · see citing works
“However, the potential of GenAI in education, such as personalised support, adaptive e-learning, and authentic assessment processes (Swiecki et al. 2022; Xie et al. 2019), can only be fully realised through the expertise and guidance of educators.”
Barrett, A., & Pack, A. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-023-00427-0 · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Bozkurt, A., Xiao, J., Lambert, S., Pazurek, A., Crompton, H., Koseoglu, S., Farrow, R., Bond, M., Nerantzi, C., Honeychurch, S., et al. (2023) · Dublin City University Open Access Institutional Repository (Dublin City University) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.7636567 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Bozkurt, A., Xiao, J., Lambert, S., Pazurek, A., Crompton, H., Koseoglu, S., Farrow, R., Bond, M., Nerantzi, C., Honeychurch, S., et al. (2023) · Zenodo · doi:10.5281/zenodo.7636568 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Acceptance of artificial intelligence in teaching science: Science teachers' perspective
Darayseh, A. A. (2023) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100132 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
The Delphi Technique in Educational Research
Green, R. A. (2014) · Sage Open · doi:10.1177/2158244014529773 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
ChatGPT: Empowering lifelong learning in the digital age of higher education
Rawas, S. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-12114-8 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Wang, X., Liu, Q., Pang, H., Tan, S. C., Lei, J., Wallace, M. P., & Li, L. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104703 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Chaudhry, I. S., Sarwary, S. A. M., El Refae, G. A., & Chabchoub, H. (2023) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2023.2210461 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Empowering learners for the age of artificial intelligence
Gašević, D., Siemens, G., & Sadiq, S. (2023) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100130 · Cited by 234 · cited 2× · see citing works
“The expansion of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in society has sparked critical discussions about its implications for education, particularly regarding the roles AI can and should play in teaching and learning (Celik 2023; Gašević, Siemens, and Sadiq 2023; Ouyang and Jiao 2021; Wang et al. 2023).”
Ding, A.-C. E., Shi, L., Yang, H., & Choi, I. (2024) · Computers and Education Open · doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2024.100178 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
To Advance AI Use in Education, Focus on Understanding Educators
Kizilcec, R. F. (2023) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-023-00351-4 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Kong, S.-C., Cheung, M.-Y. W., & Tsang, O. (2024) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100214 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Lim, L.-A., Gentili, S., Pardo, A., Kovanović, V., Whitelock-Wainwright, A., Gašević, D., & Dawson, S. (2021) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.04.003 · Cited by 159 · cited 1× · see citing works
“It also offers timely, specific, and constructive feedback, an essential component of effective instruction (L. A. Lim et al. 2021; Pardo et al. 2019).”
Mouta, A., Llorente, A. M. P., & Sánchez, E. M. T. (2023) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-023-00384-9 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Strom, K. J. (2015) · Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1177/0022487115589990 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Naidu, K., & Sevnarayan, K. (2023) · Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies · doi:10.30935/ojcmt/13291 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Xiao, P., Chen, Y., & Bao, W. (2023) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4458269 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Generative AI and Education: Digital Pedagogies, Teaching Innovation and Learning Design
Pratschke, B. M. (2024) · SpringerBriefs in Education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-67991-9 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Snape, D., Kirkham, J., Preston, J., Popay, J., Britten, N., Collins, M., Froggatt, K., Gibson, A., Lobban, F., Wyatt, K., et al. (2014) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004217 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Leoste, J., Jõgi, L., Õun, T., Pastor, L., San Martín López, J., & Grauberg, I. (2021) · Computers · doi:10.3390/computers10090110 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Giannos, P. (2023) · BMJ Neurology Open · doi:10.1136/bmjno-2023-000451 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Generative AI Professional Development Needs for Teacher Educators
Nyaaba, M., & Zhai, X.-M. (2024) · Journal of AI · doi:10.61969/jai.1385915 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Bozkurt, A., & Sharma, R. C. (2023) · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.7755272 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Radiographers’ knowledge, attitudes and expectations of artificial intelligence in medical imaging
Coakley, S., Young, R., Moore, N., England, A., O’Mahony, A. T., O’Connor, O. J., Maher, M. M., & McEntee, M. F. (2022) · Radiography · doi:10.1016/j.radi.2022.06.020 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Gleeson, J., Sugrue, C., & O’Flaherty, J. (2016) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2016.11.001 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Teacher Preparation in Ireland
O’Donoghue, T., Harford, J., & O’Doherty, T. (2017) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/9781787145115 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Knight, S., Dickson-Deane, C., Heggart, K., Kitto, K., Çetindamar Kozanoğlu, D., Maher, D., Narayan, B., & Zarrabi, F. (2023) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.8922 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Tenório, K., & Romeike, R. (2023) · Koli Calling International Conference on Computing Education Research · doi:10.1145/3631802.3631829 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Teacher educator in a digital age: A study of transformative agency
Aagaard, T., Bueie, A. A., & Hjukse, H. (2022) · Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy · doi:10.18261/njdl.17.1.3 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Practical Pedagogy: 40 New Ways to Teach and Learn
Sharples, M. (2019) · Open Research Online (The Open University) · doi:10.4324/9780429485534 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Silander, C., & Stigmar, M. (2021) · The International Journal for Academic Development · doi:10.1080/1360144x.2021.1984923 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Digital Transformations in Nordic Higher Education
Pinheiro, R. M., Tømte, C. E., Barman, L., Degn, L., & Geschwind, L. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-27758-0 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationMultiple Users’ Experiences of an AI-Aided Educational Platform for Teaching and Learning
Niu, S. J., Li, X., & Luo, J. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-09687-7_13 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Generative AI in Teacher Education: Teacher Educators’ Perception and PreparednessPreprint
Akanzire, B. N., Nyaaba, M., & Nabang, M. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4628153 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Solberg, E., & Tømte, C. E. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-26393-4_14 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Artificial intelligence in the context of teacher education: emerging themes and critical issues
Carrillo, C., Flores, M. A., & Mena, J. (2025) · European Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/02619768.2025.2584283 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Liu, X., Yang, J., Zhao, W., & Wang, T. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16040488 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Assessing teachers’ AI literacy: a systematic review of measurement tools
Zainal, M. A., Matore, M. E. E. M., & Maat, S. M. (2026) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2026.2668793 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Boumadan, M., Matosas-López, L., Tamayo, C. F. M., & Campos, L. (2026) · Revista Interuniversitaria de Formación del Profesorado Continuación de la antigua Revista de Escuelas Normales · doi:10.6018/rifop.701251 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
He, S. (2026) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1002/jcal.70305
Hasan, M. S., Jabe, M. M. N., Bandaso, T. D., Iftikhar, A., Rathore, S., & Akther, M. S. (2026) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202511.1664.v2
Abdelsattar, A., Labib, W. A., Abdelalim, M. F., & Abowardah, E. S. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1763439
Evaluating AI Pedagogical Competence in Pre-service Teachers Using the TPACK Framework
Tang, W. K.-W. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-30784-2_20
Dyosini, T. P., & Letsapa, M. (2026) · Journal of Education · doi:10.17159/2520-9868/i104a09
Teacher educators’ adoption of artificial intelligence: A qualitative UTAUT study
Kurt, G., Bayram, D., & Han-Tosunoğlu, Ç. (2026) · European Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/02619768.2026.2701094
Generative Artificial Intelligence and the Transformation of Higher Education, A Systematic ReviewPreprint
Ganaie, N. A., & Islam, B. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10636151/v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Jiang, R., Li, Y., Chen, X., & Yuxi, Z. (2026) · European Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/02619768.2026.2722224
Nicchia, E., Benigno, V., Ravicchio, F., Pario, M., Parmigiani, D., & Radović, S. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16091554
From Policy to Practice: How HEIs Provide Guidance and Training for Generative AI in Teaching.
Tømte, C. E., Talmo, T. M., & Støckert, R. (2026) · Lecture notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-39734-8_23
Self-citation
- Authors
- Ceallaigh, T. J. Ó., O’ Brien, E., Tømte, C., Kulaksız, T., & Connolly, C.
- Affiliations
- University College Cork
- Mary Immaculate College
- University of Agder (NO)
- Heidelberg University of Education (DE)
- Ollscoil na Gaillimhe – University of Galway (IE)
- Venue
- European Journal of Teacher Education
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2025-09-23
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 914-933
- ISSN
- 0261-9768 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-5928
- OpenAlex
- W4414426797
- Cited by
- 14
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 1
- FWCI
- 14.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- European Journal of Teacher Education (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Health Informatics › Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Digital literacy in education
- Keywords
- generative AI, teacher professional development, teacher educators, AI readiness, institutional support, AI competencies, AI integration in education, ChatGPT, educational innovation, AI policy in education, 21st century teaching
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
