State of the art and practice in AI in education

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

We have not been able to identify currently available commercial examples of dialogue-based tutoring systems (DBTS).

“We have not been able to identify currently available commercial examples of DBTS.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

AI-assisted Lifelong Learning Assistants have received very little research effort to date.

“However, to date such a tool has received very little research effort.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There are few researched and commercially available examples of learning network orchestrators.

“There are few researched and commercially available examples of this.”

May combine two claims.

Some influential ITS, such as the ASSISTments system, started explicitly as a system for high-stakes test preparation; and many widely used Chinese AIED systems are also focused on teaching for the test.

“In fact, some influential ITS, such as the ASSISTments system, started explicitly as a system for high-stakes test preparation (Heffernan & Heffernan, 2014); and many widely used Chinese AIED systems are also focused on teaching for the test (Knox, 2020).”

• cites Heffernan & Heffernan, 2014Not checked yet

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• cites Knox, 2020Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In much existing student-focused AIED research and development, the ultimate rationale of using AI has been that it can lead to learning gains in specific knowledge domains independently of human teachers.

“In much of the existing student-focused AIED research and development, the ultimate rationale of using AI has been that it can lead to learning gains in specific knowledge domains independently of human teachers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Many current commercial AI systems developed for education, so-called Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS), focus on providing automated, adaptive and individualised instruction.

“Many current commercial AI systems developed for education, so-called Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS), focus on providing automated, adaptive and individualised instruction, an approach that we explore in more detail below.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

AIED research and development has largely been driven by computer scientists.

“Research and development in AI for education (AIED) has to a large extent been driven by computer scientists (Chen et al., 2020;Williamson & Eynon, 2020;Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019).”

• cites Chen et al., 2020Not checked yet

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• cites Williamson & Eynon, 2020Not checked yet

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• cites Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The technological origins of student-focused AIED can be traced to the work of Sidney Pressey, B. F. Skinner, Gordon Pask, and Jaime Carbonell.

“The technological origins of student focused AIED, however, can be traced to the work of Sidney Pressey, B. F. Skinner, Gordon Pask, and Jaime Carbonell (Holmes et al., 2019).”

• cites Holmes et al., 2019Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Learning as a developmental and socio-cultural phenomenon has only recently become a more common topic in AIED.

“Learning as a developmental and socio-cultural phenomenon, however, has only recently become a more common topic in AIED (e.g., Thomas & Porayska-Pomsta, 2022).”

• cites Thomas & Porayska-Pomsta, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

These two latter functions (socialisation and subjectification) have received comparatively little attention from AIED researchers.

“These two latter functions have received comparatively little attention from AIED researchers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The close historical link between AI and cognitive science has meant that many influential AI systems in education have been built on cognitive architectures, themselves based on the idea that the human brain is an information processor.

“The close historical link between AI and cognitive science (Gardner, 1985) has meant that many influential AI systems in education have been built on cognitive architectures, themselves based on the idea that the human brain is an information processor.”

• cites Gardner, 1985Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In more recent AIED research, the impact of human tutoring has been found to be below one standard deviation, which the research also suggests has already been achieved by some ITS.

“In more recent AIED research, the impact of human tutoring has been found to be below one standard deviation, which the research also suggests has already been achieved by some ITS (VanLehn, 2011).”

• cites VanLehn, 2011Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Many higher education institutions, mainly in the US, use commercially available AI-assisted admissions software, not without controversy.

“Many higher education institutions, mainly in the US, use commercially available AI-assisted admissions software to support their admission processes-however, not without controversy (Pangburn, 2019).”

• cites Pangburn, 2019Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The human brain operates with about 20 Watts of energy, which suggests that data-driven AI is based on different principles than human intelligence.

“The human brain, on the other hand, operates with about 20 Watts of energy, which suggests that data-driven AI is based on different principles than human intelligence (Tuomi, 2020).”

• cites Tuomi, 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

E-proctoring is probably one of the clearest examples of using AI to automate poor pedagogic practices, rather than using it to develop innovative approaches.

“In fact, e-Proctoring is probably one of the clearest examples of using AI to automate poor pedagogic practices, rather than using it to develop innovative approaches.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

All state-of-the-art data-driven AI systems work by being given input data, making a prediction, using the error to calculate a loss that the system tries to minimise during training by adapting its parameter values.

“All state-of-the-art data-driven AI systems, therefore, work in the following way.First, the system is given some input data, and it is allowed to make a prediction.The error in prediction is used to calculate a 'loss' that the system tries to minimise during its training phase by adapting its parameter values.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The purported benefits of AI in education have received much visibility.

“As noted in the introduction, the purported benefits of AI in education have received much visibility (e.g., OECD, 2020OECD, , 2021)).”

• cites OECD, 2020Not checked yet

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• cites OECD, 2021Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Mastery learning requires individual-level differentiation or 'personalisation' of instruction, for which AIED systems have been proposed and designed as an answer.

“Thus, mastery learning requires individual-level differentiation or 'personalisation' of instruction, for which AIED systems have been proposed and designed as an answer.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One classical definition specifies that AI is research that develops technologies that can do things that would require intelligence if done by humans.

“One classical definition specifies that AI is research that develops technologies that can do things that would require intelligence if done by humans (Minsky, 1969).”

• cites Minsky, 1969Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Useful and usable definitions of AI depend on what they are used for.

“It is, however, important to note that useful and usable definitions of AI depend on what they are used for.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The 2-sigma effect provides a rarely contested implicit model of the function of education among AIED researchers, which ignores Biesta's socialisation and individuation functions.

“Nonetheless, the 2-sigma effect also provides a rarely contested implicit model of the function of education among AIED researchers, which ignores Biesta's socialisation and individuation functions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Energy consumption is now widely understood to be a major challenge for data-driven AI.

“Energy consumption is now widely understood to be a major challenge for data-driven AI (Strubell et al., 2019).”

• cites Strubell et al., 2019Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Data-driven AI has seen extraordinary advances during the last decade because of three key factors: computational power, huge amounts of data, and massive human effort in labelling.

“Data-driven AI has seen extraordinary advances during the last decade because of three key factors (Tuomi, 2018).”

• cites Tuomi, 2018Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Kai-Fu Lee's vision neatly summarises the beliefs about AIED held by many of its keenest advocates.

“Such a vision of the AI-enabled future neatly summarises the beliefs about AIED held by many of its keenest advocates.”

May combine two claims.

Ambiguous results, methodological and practical challenges, lack of independence and scale, and more fundamental questions about the aims of education have left ample space to contest any generic claims about the benefits of student-focused AIED.

“Ambiguous results, methodological and practical challenges, lack of independence and scale, and more fundamental questions about the aims of education have left ample space to contest any generic claims about the benefits of student-focused AIED.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Data-driven AI has produced impressive results in the last decade in computer vision, natural language processing, robotics, and in many other areas widely reported in the media.

“Data-driven AI has produced impressive results in the last decade in computer vision, natural language processing, robotics, and in many other areas widely reported in the media.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most current AI systems essentially are behaviouristic stimulus-response systems.

“In fact, as most current AI systems essentially are behaviouristic stimulus-response systems, it has also been suggested that AI should more appropriately denote Artificial Instincts (Tuomi, 2018).”

• cites Tuomi, 2018Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

AI is applied in education (AIED) in multiple ways.

“AI is applied in education (AIED) in multiple ways.”

May combine two claims.

Many studies have shown learning gains when ITS have been used in the classroom, but the results are not unambiguous.

“There are many studies that have shown learning gains when ITS have been used in the classroom (cf.du Boulay, 2019), but the results are not unambiguous.”

• cites du Boulay, 2019Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The market for plagiarism detection is now dominated by Turnitin, with other tools extensively used.

“The market is now dominated by Turnitin (Turnitin, 2022), with its various tools such as iThenticate and Ouriginal, but also detection software such as Plagiarism Checker X (Plagiarism Checker X, 2022) and the more student oriented Grammarly's plagiarism checker (Grammarly, 2022b) are extensively used.”

• cites Turnitin, 2022Not checked yet

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• cites Plagiarism Checker X, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Grammarly, 2022bNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

It is not entirely clear what such 'working' would comprise.

“More importantly, it is not entirely clear what such 'working' would comprise.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The UNICEF definition of AI refers to machine-based systems that can, given a set of human-defined objectives, make predictions, recommendations, or decisions that influence real or virtual environments.

“AI refers to machine-based systems that can, given a set of human-defined objectives, make predictions, recommendations, or decisions that influence real or virtual environments.AI systems interact with us and act on our environment, either directly or indirectly.Often, they appear to operate autonomously, and can adapt their behaviour by learning about the context.(UNICEF, 2021, p. 16)”

• cites UNICEF, 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In Open Tutor, the learner is in charge, deciding what they want to learn, while the AI plays a supporting role.

“Nonetheless, what is particularly interesting is that the learner is in charge, deciding what they want to learn, while the AI (unlike with an ITS) plays a supporting role.”

May combine two claims.

Only rare examples exist of independent evaluations at scale, while meta-level reviews show modest learning gain impacts across many relatively small settings.

“Only rare examples exist of independent evaluations at scale (e.g., Roschelle et al., 2016), while meta-level reviews (e.g., Kulik & Fletcher, 2016;Ma et al., 2014) show modest learning gain impacts across many relatively small settings.”

• cites Roschelle et al., 2016Not checked yet

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• cites Kulik & Fletcher, 2016Not checked yet

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• cites Ma et al., 2014Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

AI systems always make their recommendations, predictions and decisions based on objectives that are specified by the system designer at the time the system is developed.

“For example, AI systems always make their recommendations, predictions and decisions based on objectives that are specified by the system designer at the time the system is developed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

It is not possible to draw aggregate inferences or make grand claims about AIED's efficacy or otherwise.

“Accordingly, it is not possible either to draw aggregate inferences or, for example, make grand claims about AIED's efficacy or otherwise.”

May combine two claims.

Many AIED technologies are designed to save time for teachers, but in so doing they effectively take over teaching tasks, potentially reducing teachers to a functional role.

“However, in so doing, they effectively take over teaching tasks, potentially reducing teachers to a functional role (Guilherme, 2019;Selwyn, 2019).”

• cites Guilherme, 2019Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Selwyn, 2019Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

This mastery learning model underpins most ITS, as well as the notion that AI can 'personalise' learning.

“This model underpins most ITS, as well as the notion that AI can 'personalise' learning.”

May combine two claims.

Training OpenAI's GPT-3 has been estimated to have required as much energy as driving a car to the moon and back, thus generating an equivalent of 85,000 kg of CO2 emissions.

“Training OpenAI's GPT-3 has been estimated to have required as much energy as driving a car to the moon and back, thus generating an equivalent of 85,000 kg of CO 2 emissions (Quach, 2020).”

• cites Quach, 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Historically, the emergence of new key technologies have led to exaggerated and over-optimistic expectations, subsequent economic crashes, and the gradual articulation of technological possibilities over relatively long periods of time.

“Historically, the emergence of new key technologies have led to exaggerated and over-optimistic expectations, subsequent economic crashes, and the gradual articulation of technological possibilities over relatively long periods of time (Nemorin et al., 2022;Perez, 2002).”

• cites Nemorin et al., 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Perez, 2002Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The Open Tutor system involves human tutors and is relatively expensive to scale.

“Inevitably, as this system involves human tutors, it is relatively expensive to scale.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Knowledge-based AI still underpins most existing AIED systems.

“Data-driven AI might have great potential in education, depending on the intentions of the system, but knowledge-based AI still underpins most existing AIED systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The development of technologies to personalise learning to the strengths and weaknesses of individual students began almost 100 years ago, with the so-called teaching machines devised by Sidney Pressey and B. F. Skinner.

“In fact, as discussed in the introduction, the development of technologies to personalise learning to the strengths and weaknesses of individual students began almost 100 years ago, with the so-called teaching machines devised by Sidney Pressey and B. F. Skinner (Watters, 2021).”

• cites Watters, 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

AIED colonialism might involve the adoption of AIED tools created in one context in other places, leading to market and economic gains for Global North corporations, with the extraction of local data and capital out of the host country.

“AIED colonialism might involve the adoption of AIED tools created in one context in other places, leading to market and economic gains for the Global North corporations, with the extraction of local data and capital out of the host country (Nemorin et al., 2022).”

• cites Nemorin et al., 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Early in the COVID-19 pandemic, much education moved online, leading to massive growth for e-Proctoring companies.

“Early on in the COVID-19 pandemic, much education moved online, as did many examinations-which led to many exam-monitoring, or e-Proctoring, companies seeing their businesses grow massively (Nigam et al., 2021).”

• cites Nigam et al., 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

AIED colonialism might simply involve the language in which most classroom AIED tends to be trained-mainly American English.

“More subtly, it might simply involve the language in which most classroom AIED tends to be trained-mainly American English (Cotterell et al., 2020).”

• cites Cotterell et al., 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

While the immediate cohort in a context such as rural areas in developing countries might benefit from being given access to an AIED tool, there are many challenges.

“However, while the immediate cohort in such a context might benefit from being given access to an AIED tool, there are many challenges.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Technology has a significant impact on human development and cognition.

“It has long been thought, ever since Socrates argued that writing led to forgetfulness (Plato, 257 C.E.), that technology has a significant impact on human development and cognition.”

• cites Plato, 257 C.E.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Academic researchers have conducted many studies into the efficacy of various AIED systems.

“As the many articles published in the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education show, academic researchers have conducted many studies into the efficacy of various AIED systems.”

May combine two claims.

These teaching machines failed to be widely accepted, and the personalised learning agenda more or less disappeared.

“For various reasons, these machines failed to be widely accepted, and the personalised learning agenda more or less disappeared.”

• cites Watters, 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Greater use of GPS navigation devices and applications leads to a decline in spatial memory.

“For example, while one study has suggested that greater use of Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation devices and applications leads to a decline in spatial memory (Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020), another has shown that the use of smartphone alerts frees cognitive resources for other tasks (Fröscher et al., 2022).”

• cites Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

It is not clear why some schools use ITS in classrooms, which are by definition social spaces.

“While ITS might be useful when the student is without a teacher or their peers, perhaps when completing homework, it is not clear why some schools use them in classrooms, which are by definition social spaces.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The personalisation of learning pathways offered by much current AIED is a very limited interpretation of personalisation.

“The personalisation of learning pathways offered by much current AIED, however, is a very limited interpretation of personalisation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The meaning of personalised learning remains unclear.

“Despite the meaning of personalised learning remaining unclear (Holmes, Anastopoulou, et al., 2018), it increasingly informs the mainstream education narrative (e.g., European Parliament, 2021; UNICEF, 2022).”

• cites Holmes, Anastopoulou, et al., 2018Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

AIED corporations are increasingly selling their AIED tools globally, creating what has been called an AIED colonialism: Global North companies exporting their AIED tools into contexts in the Global South, creating asymmetries in power across and between nations.

“AIED corporations are increasingly selling their AIED tools globally, creating what has been called an AIED colonialism: Global North companies exporting their AIED tools into contexts in the Global South, creating asymmetries in power across and between nations.”

May combine two claims.

Classroom orchestration is at an early stage of development, but there is a growing body of research into how AI might assist.

“This is at an early stage of development, nonetheless there is a growing body of research into how AI might assist classroom orchestration (Song, 2021).”

• cites Song, 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

These gains and extractions may begin with individual schools embedding AIED tools into teachers' everyday practices before expanding to draw in entire state education systems in which single products are adopted across all schools.

“These gains and extractions may begin with individual schools embedding AIED tools into teachers' everyday practices before expanding to draw in entire state education systems in which single products are adopted across all schools.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

AIED systems perform better than human teachers working in large classes, and slightly worse than one-on-one human tutors.

“The overall conclusion of these metareviews and analyses is that AIED systems perform better than […] human teachers working in large classes.They perform slightly worse than one-on-one human tutors […].”

• cites du Boulay, 2016Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Autograders have been used for the assessment of written tasks and in computer science and mathematics courses.

“Autograders have been used for the assessment of written tasks (e.g., the US SATs) (Ramesh & Sanampudi, 2021), and in computer science and mathematics courses.”

• cites Ramesh & Sanampudi, 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Most of these large independent studies have been conducted in the US, limiting their transferability to other countries.

“Most of these large independent studies have been conducted in the US, limiting their transferability to other countries.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The vast majority of impact studies have been conducted by the developers of the particular technology being studied, and most often with relatively small numbers of learners.

“The vast majority of impact studies have been conducted by the developers of the particular technology being studied (increasingly from commercial organisations), and most often with relatively small numbers of learners.”

May combine two claims.

The overwhelming balance of AIED research is carried out in the Global North, and rarely addresses cultural diversity or local policies and practices in any meaningful way.

“This is exacerbated by the fact that the overwhelming balance of AIED research is also carried out in the Global North, and rarely addresses cultural diversity or local policies and practices in any meaningful way (Blanchard, 2015).”

• cites Blanchard, 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The personalised learning agenda re-emerged decades later, mainly from Silicon Valley, partly because the internet made mass customisation possible across a broad range of industries.

“It re-emerged decades later, mainly from Silicon Valley, partly because the internet made mass customisation possible across a broad range of industries.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

E-proctoring tools are hugely controversial.

“However, these tools are hugely controversial (Kelley, 2021).”

• cites Kelley, 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

One important potential impact of AIED is on human cognition and brain development.

“One important potential impact of AIED is on human cognition and brain development.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Education is also about collaboration and the other social interaction aspects of teaching and learning, which are often ignored by current ITS and most other AIED.

“Third, education is also about collaboration and the other social interaction aspects of teaching and learning, which are often ignored by current ITS and most other AIED.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The use of smartphone alerts frees cognitive resources for other tasks.

“For example, while one study has suggested that greater use of Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation devices and applications leads to a decline in spatial memory (Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020), another has shown that the use of smartphone alerts frees cognitive resources for other tasks (Fröscher et al., 2022).”

• cites Fröscher et al., 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The so-called individual pathways provided by almost all AIED systems are mostly based on the averages of prior learners.

“Second, the socalled individual pathways provided by almost all AIED systems are mostly based on the averages of prior learners.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The impact of technology on human development and cognition is likely to be complex.

“Inevitably, however, this impact is likely to be complex.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Such institution-focused tools have a clear administrative function and share much with business-orientated AI.

“Such tools have a clear administrative function and share much with business-orientated Artificial Intelligence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In recent years, for AI in general there has been a growing focus on ethics, resulting in more than 80 sets of ethical AI principles.

“In recent years, for AI in general there has been a growing focus on ethics, resulting in more than 80 sets of ethical AI principles (Ayling & Chapman, 2021;Jobin et al., 2019;Tsamados et al., 2022).”

• cites Ayling & Chapman, 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Jobin et al., 2019Not checked yet

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• cites Tsamados et al., 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The ethical challenges related to AI in education are particularly difficult both conceptually and in practice because education has important social roles and aims at human development.

“Although the general ethical concerns related to AI are now widely debated, education has important social roles and aims at human development, which makes the related ethical challenges particularly difficult both conceptually and in practice.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Education has important social roles and aims at human development.

May combine two claims.

AIED in such contexts might address the apparent symptoms of the problem (for example, learners not receiving a quality education), but not necessarily the underlying and long-term socio-political causes (the lack of experienced and qualified teachers).

“Most importantly, AIED in such contexts might address the apparent symptoms of the problem (for example, learners not receiving a quality education), but not necessarily the underlying and long-term socio-political causes (the lack of experienced and qualified teachers).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Many rural areas do not yet have the necessary infrastructure (electricity and access to the Internet).
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Rarely are there the skilled support staff needed for the deployment, management and support of the required hardware and software in rural areas.

May combine two claims.

AI is increasingly being used to support admissions, often using tools provided by commercial companies such as Salesforce.

“Nonetheless, AI is increasingly being used to support admissions (Marcinkowski et al., 2020), often using tools provided by commercial companies such as Salesforce (Salesforce, 2022).”

• cites Marcinkowski et al., 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Salesforce, 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Most teachers personalise their teaching moment by moment in response to each individual student, helping the student to self-actualise, to become the best that they can be.

“However, most teachers personalise their teaching moment by moment in response to each individual student, helping the student (if the particular education system permits) to self-actualise, to become the best that they can be.”

May combine two claims.

Google Classroom has become both a global collector of student data and a critical control point where the rules of participation are defined.

“For example, a study on the complex ways in which Google binds AIED users and developers into its infrastructure has shown that the Google Classroom has become both a global collector of student data and also a critical control point where the rules of participation are defined (Perrotta et al., 2021;Williamson, 2021).”

• cites Perrotta et al., 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Williamson, 2021Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

All our images of the future are based on our understanding and construction of history.

“All our images of the future are based on our understanding and construction of history.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The future of AI cannot necessarily be predicted by extrapolating the developments of the last decade.

“As the progress in data-driven AI has led to exponentially growing computational requirements, it is now increasingly understood that the future of AI cannot necessarily be predicted by extrapolating the developments of the last decade.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

While original research is undertaken in academia with the explicit aim of enhancing teaching and learning, today's commercial organisations by definition focus on generating profits.

“First, while original research is undertaken in academia with the explicit aim of enhancing teaching and learning, today's commercial organisations by definition focus on generating profits.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

AIED colonialism might also involve the imposition of particular approaches to pedagogy-at present often instructionist and behaviourist-as embedded in most current commercial AIED tutoring systems.

“AIED colonialism might also involve the imposition of particular approaches to pedagogy-at present often instructionist and behaviourist-as embedded in most current commercial AIED tutoring systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Many recent breakthroughs in data-driven AI, such as the capability to locate a cat in a picture or distinguish words in a spoken sentence, are simple tasks for an infant already years before the child enters school.

“Many recent breakthroughs in datadriven AI, such as the capability to locate a cat in a picture or distinguish words in a spoken sentence, are simple tasks for an infant already years before the child enters school.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The future of AIED should be understood from the point of view of AI-supported augmentation of human cognition and learning.

“This suggests that the future of AIED should be understood from the point of view of AI-supported augmentation of human cognition and learning, an approach that has been an important line of thinking in AI throughout its history (Bush, 1945;Engelbart, 1963;Winograd & Flores, 1986).”

• cites Bush, 1945Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Engelbart, 1963Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Winograd & Flores, 1986Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Data-driven AI provides important basic information processing functionality, such as pattern recognition.

“Data-driven AI provides important basic information processing functionality, such as pattern recognition.”

May combine two claims.

Commercial AIED organisations are not only shaping individual learners but are also beginning to influence governance and national policies.

“Commercial AIED organisations are not only shaping individual learners but are also beginning to influence governance and national policies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

In educational contexts, the development of AI may more constructively be seen as a joint development of human and artificial cognition.

“In educational contexts, the development of AI, therefore, may more constructively be seen as a joint development of human and artificial cognition.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

This has potentially important consequences for the social control of education and educational innovation.

“Beyond limiting interoperability, this has potentially important consequences for the social control of education and educational innovation.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Commercial organisations rarely share information about their proprietary systems and their effectiveness.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Learner-focused AI has been the subject of research for around 40 years, and almost a decade ago it shifted from being a focus of research labs to being developed into commercial products by a growing number of multi-million-dollar-funded AIED companies.

“While learnerfocused AI has been the subject of research for around 40 years, almost a decade ago it shifted from having been a focus of research labs to be developed into commercial products by a growing number of multi-million-dollarfunded AIED companies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The commercialisation of education through an AIED back door is fraught with both practical and ideological issues.

“In short, the commercialisation of education through an AIED back door is fraught with both practical and ideological issues.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

It is mostly these commercial products that are being implemented in schools around the world, frequently by government (local and national) agencies.

“It is mostly these products that are being implemented in schools around the world, frequently by government (local and national) agencies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The societal and cultural impact of commercial AIED may exceed the more surface level economic ones.

“The societal and cultural impact may also exceed the more surface level economic ones.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A final potential roadblock is the commercialisation of education by stealth.

“A final potential roadblock noted in this article is the commercialisation of education by stealth.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The future of AIED is also an economic and even a geopolitical issue.

“The future of AIED, therefore, is also an economic and even a geopolitical issue.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Colonialism might also fall along a spectrum.

“Finally, colonialism might also fall along a spectrum.”