Psychological stress in sports coaches: A review of concepts, research, and practice

“Kobasa (1979) characterized the ‘‘hardy personality’’ as one that encompasses high levels of commitment or involvement in day-to-day activities, the perception that one has control over life events, and a tendency to view unexpected change as a challenge rather than a threat to well-being.”

“The transactional conceptualization of stress is less focused on the specific components of an interaction and more concerned with the psychological processes that underpin an encounter (cf. Dewey & Bentley, 1949; Lazarus & Launier, 1978).”

“Dewey & Bentley, 1949 ; Lazarus & Launier, 1978 ).”

“not be used to describe specific components of the transaction between the person and the environment (Lazarus, 1990), but rather to represent the overall process incorporating stressors, strains, appraisals, and coping responses.”

“Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, stressrelated concepts such as anxiety, arousal, and activation featured heavily in researchers’ attempts to better understand and explain how psychological processes influence athletic performance (Hardy et al., 1996; Jones, 1990; Jones & Hardy, 1989, 1990; Woodman & Hardy, 2001).”

“In terms of its origins in the psychological literature, the term ‘‘stress’’ can be traced back to its first appearance in Psychological Abstracts in 1944 (Jones & Bright, 2001; see also Hinkle, 1973; Mason, 1975) and, specifically in the field of sport psychology, to Kroll’s (1979) discussion of ‘‘The stress of high…”

“Initially, the ‘‘duty of care’’ was focused upon physical well-being, but with the increasing recognition that the experience of stress at work can have a negative impact on employees, there has been a shift in the interpretation to include both physical and mental well-being (Cousins et al., 2004).”

“As the number and quality of sports coaches has risen worldwide, coaching has evolved into a recognizable occupation that is fast advancing towards professionalization (Lyle, 2002; Woodman, 1993).”

“In line with this, the HSE has developed the Management Standards programme, which is essentially a three-phase process based on a risk assessment to identify potential stressors in the workplace and associated targeted interventions (see Cousins et al, 2004 ; Mackay, Cousins, Kelly, Lee, & McCaig, 2004 ).”

“Interestingly, in many respects these stressors parallel those that arise in other demanding professions (see Cooper, Dewe, & O’Driscoll, 2001), including athletes performing in elite sport (Fletcher & Hanton, 2003).”

“While recognizing the advances Frey’s (2007) work has made, Thelwell et al. (2008b) also noted that research with coaches operating at a higher standard of competitive sport is still required.”

“Within the coaching stress literature, it is possible to distinguish between four categories of response: cognitive, affective, physiological, and behavioural (Frey, 2007; Taylor, 1992).”

“Coping has been conceived as “the cognitions and behaviors, adopted by the individual following the recognition of a stress encounter, that are in some way designed to deal with that encounter or its consequences” (Dewe, Cox, & Ferguson, 1993 , p.”

“In their evaluation of a coach education programme with New Zealand rugby coaches, Cassidy et al. (2006) found that the participants particularly appreciated the opportunity to share ideas and strategies with each other – a basis from which primary level interventions could be developed.”

“Research suggests that coaches high in hardiness are less susceptible to developing burnout due to more positive appraisals of environmental demands (Hendrix, Acevedo, & Hebert, 2000; Kelley, 1994; Kelley et al., 1999).”

“Research suggests that coaches high in hardiness are less susceptible to developing burnout due to more positive appraisals of environmental demands (Hendrix, Acevedo, & Hebert, 2000; Kelley, 1994; Kelley et al., 1999).”

“From a psychological outcome perspective, researchers investigating burnout in coaches have also identified social support as a powerful protective factor (Hendrix et al., 2000; Kelley, 1994; Kelley & Gill, 1993; Vealey et al., 1992).”

“(p. 49) From a psychological outcome perspective, researchers investigating burnout in coaches have also identified social support as a powerful protective factor (Hendrix et al., 2000; Kelley, 1994; Kelley & Gill, 1993; Vealey et al., 1992).”

“While recognizing the advances Frey’s (2007) work has made, Thelwell et al. (2008b) also noted that research with coaches operating at a higher standard of competitive sport is still required.”

“In their paper about consulting with sports coaches, Giges et al. (2004) describe how sport psychologists can assist coaches in becoming more self-aware of their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.”

“Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, stress-related concepts such as anxiety, arousal, and activation featured heavily in researchers' attempts to better understand and explain how psychological processes influence athletic performance (Hardy et al, 1996 ; Jones, 1990 ; Jones & Hardy, 1989 , 1990 ; Woodman & Hardy, 2001 ).”

“Early research on various stress outcomes within the allied fields of coaching (Dale & Weinberg, 1989), university physical education (Danylchuk, 1993), and sport medicine (Capel, 1986) indicated that coaches, faculty, and trainers exhibit lower levels of burnout than other service professions.”

“Within the coaching stress literature, it is possible to distinguish between four categories of response: cognitive, affective, physiological, and behavioural (Frey, 2007; Taylor, 1992).”

“Furthermore, Kellmann and Kallus (1994) postulated that stress often results in coaches being unable to perform necessary tasks, such as analysing situations and preparing athletes during competitions.”

“This outcome served to highlight the responsibility an employer has to exercise a duty of care to employees and ensure that there is an adequate system in place to assess the risk from work stress (Earnshaw & Morrison, 2001).”

“Early research on various stress outcomes within the allied fields of coaching (Dale & Weinberg, 1989), university physical education (Danylchuk, 1993), and sport medicine (Capel, 1986) indicated that coaches, faculty, and trainers exhibit lower levels of burnout than other service professions.”

“…and athletes’ preferred learning styles), formal and informal group discussions, and active management of the organizational environment (Cassidy, Potrac, & McKenzie, 2006; Demers, Woodburn, & Savard, 2006; Frey, 2007; Giges, Petitpas, & Vernacchia, 2004; Scantling & Lackey, 2005; Taylor, 1992).”

“…may initially appraise a stressor in a negative manner, but further evaluates the resultant emotion as having thepotential to facilitate performance (cf. Fletcher& Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher, Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2006; Fletcher & Scott, 2010), and thereby maintain resilience in stressful situations.”

“Furthermore, coaches also experience specific stressors and in some cases, may require better emotional support [19, 20] within a culture of performance and competition.”

“…e.g., Anshel, Kim, Kim, Chang, & Eom, 2001; Burton, 1998; Burton & Naylor, 1997; Fletcher & Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher, Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2006; Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Gill, 1994; Rotella & Lerner, 1993; Tenenbaum, Jones, Kitsantas, Sacks, & Berwick, 2003a; see also Anderson & Williams, 1988;…”

“Based on this thesis of the CMR theory, Fletcher and Scott (2010) developed a model to explain how individuals respond in pressured situations and how the process affects their performance (cf. Fletcher & Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher, Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2006).”