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Attention control: Relationships between self-report and behavioural measures, and symptoms of anxiety and depression
Abstract
Individual differences in attention control are proposed to contribute to anxiety and depression. However, self-reported attention control, assessed on the Attentional Control Scale (ACS), appears to be a heterogeneous construct with separate components of focusing (e.g., concentrating, resisting distraction) and shifting (e.g., flexible switching of attention between tasks). Moreover, these constructs are proposed to relate differently to anxiety and depression. Two studies are reported which investigated relationships between ACS focusing and shifting and (i) an objective behavioural measure of attention control from the Attention Network Task (ANT); and (ii) anxiety and depression symptoms in two separate non-clinical samples (Ns = 165 and 193). Results of Study 1 indicated that only ACS focusing was significantly associated with ANT attention control; with both measures reflecting resistance to distraction. In both studies, self-reported ability to focus attention (ACS focusing) was associated with lower anxiety; and greater attentional flexibility (ACS shifting) was associated with fewer depression symptoms.
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“Studies have found that high attentional control is associated with lower levels of anxiety and depression (Ólafsson et al., 2011; Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2013), thereby highlighting attentional control as a relevant therapeutic target.”
From Mediators of acceptance and mindfulness-based therapies for anxiety and depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2013
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“…of taskirrelevant processing (such as the ANT attention control index used here) but also objective measures of attention shifting (e.g., task switching), as well as assessing different types of inhibition-related control functions in attention and working memory (Friedman & Miyake, 2004).”
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Self-citationA meta-analysis of the relationship between anxiety and attentional control
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“To examine unique relationships between the subscales and symptoms of anxiety and depression, we conducted two hierarchical regression analyses using the same structure reported in recent studies (Ólafsson et al., 2011; Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2013; see Table 4).”
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“The problematic evidence regarding the construct validity of the ACS in the present study and prior research (Judah et al., 2014; Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2013) suggests caution when interpreting associations with scores on the ACS.”
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Morillas-Romero, A., Tortella‐Feliu, M., Bornas, X., & Putman, P. (2015) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-015-0351-x · Cited by 99
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“Judah et al. (2014) and Reinholdt-Dunne et al. (2013) found differential relationships between the STAI anxiety and depression subscales and the ACS focusing and shifting subscales, with STAI anxiety showing a unique negative correlation with ACS focusing and STAI depression showing a unique…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialDoes rumination mediate the relationship between attentional control and symptoms of depression?
DeJong, H., Fox, E., & Stein, A. (2019) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2018.12.007 · Cited by 67
“norms for the ANT, these values appear to be broadly similar to previous studies in undergraduate samples (Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2013).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialIntervenciones psicológicas basadas en mindfulness y sus beneficios: estado actual de la cuestión
Hervás, G., Cebolla, A., & Soler, J. (2016) · Clínica y Salud · doi:10.1016/j.clysa.2016.09.002 · Cited by 67
The Role of Attentional Control in the Relationship Between Mindfulness and Anxiety
MacDonald, H. Z., & Olsen, A. (2020) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/0033294119835756 · Cited by 64
“…rumination, as well as to voluntarily focus their attention on positive thoughts, which may serve to protect against or reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety (Bardeen & Orcutt, 2011; Fergus et al., 2012; Mills et al., 2016; Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2013; Wadlinger & Isaacowtiz, 2011).”
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“This was an unexpected finding; however, less ability to focus attention has previously been associated with higher levels of anxiety in children and adults (e.g. Reinholdt et al., 2012), perhaps because attention, a key aspect of executive functioning, helps regulate emotional impulses.”
ResultMogg, K., Salum, G. A., Bradley, B. P., Gadelha, A., Pan, P., Alvarenga, P., Rohde, L. A., Pine, D. S., & Manfro, G. G. (2015) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291715000586 · Cited by 63
“Two other studies failed to replicate this finding, possibly due to differences in sampling (Moriya & Tanno, 2009; Reinholdt-Dunne et al. 2013).”
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Attentional control, attentional network functioning, and emotion regulation styles
Tortella‐Feliu, M., Morillas-Romero, A., Balle, M., Bornas, X., Llabrés, J., & Pacheco‐Unguetti, A. P. (2013) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2013.860889 · Cited by 57
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“Accordingly, since attentional bias to positive stimuli, attentional control and trait resilience are associatedwith symptoms of depression, respectively, (Armstrong&Olatunji, 2012; Edward, 2005; Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2013) we tested these associations also by adjusting for these symptoms.”
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O’Bryan, E. M., Kraemer, K. M., Johnson, A. L., McLeish, A. C., & McLaughlin, L. E. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.12.015 · Cited by 42
“Indeed, poorer attentional control is associated with greater symptoms of general anxiety, depression, worry, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms (Judah et al., 2014; Macatee et al., 2016; Ólafsson et al., 2011; Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2013).”
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Holmes, S. E., Esterlis, I., Mazure, C. M., Lim, Y. Y., Ames, D. J., Rainey‐Smith, S. R., Fowler, C. J., Ellis, K. A., Martins, R. N., Salvado, O., et al. (2017) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.4761 · Cited by 45
“This finding is consistent with research showing that lower attentional function is associated with higher levels of anxiety and depression symptoms (Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2013).”
ResultAttentional control both helps and harms empathy
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Relationships among attention networks and physiological responding to threat
Sarapas, C., Weinberg, A., Langenecker, S. A., & Shankman, S. A. (2016) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2016.09.012 · Cited by 44
“Consistent with these predictions, a number of studies have reported that trait anxiety and anxiety disorders are associated with lower self-reported attentional control (Armstrong et al., 2011; Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2013) and less efficient performance on behavioral measures of attentional control (Bishop, 2009; Pa…”
ResultMapping cognitive brain functions at scale
Balasubramani, P. P., Ojeda, A., Grennan, G., Maric, V., Le, H., Alim, F., Zafar-Khan, M., Diaz-Delgado, J., Silveira, S., Ramanathan, D., et al. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117641 · Cited by 39
Mills, A. C., Grant, D. M., Judah, M. R., White, E. J., Taylor, D. L., & Frosio, K. E. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.02.055 · Cited by 37
“Individuals low in focusing have difficulties resisting distraction (e.g., Derryberry and Reed (2002) and Reinholdt-Dunne et al. (2013)); thus, these individuals may be more susceptible to experience RNT and/or other intrusive negative stimuli, which could prolong RNT and/or any of its negative…”
BackgroundEffect of Threat on Right dlPFC Activity during Behavioral Pattern Separation
Balderston, N. L., Hsiung, A., Ernst, M., & Grillon, C. (2017) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0717-17.2017 · Cited by 35
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Abnormal error processing in depressive states: a translational examination in humans and rats
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“personal attributions of causes of negative events [30–32], and the attention to threat bias (ATB), described as the tendency to preferentially process threatening stimuli [13,23,33].”
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“This study indicates a significant association between SD and depression among college students, aligning with previous studies [56,57] that affirm its negative impact on mental health.”
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“The ANT has been validated against self-report measures of individual differences in attentional control [59], though not to our knowledge in terms of autistic traits per se.”
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“Many studies have explored the relationship between attentional control and negative emotions, such as anxiety symptoms (5, 19), and depression symptoms (20, 21).”
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“Additionally, Reinholdt-Dunne et al. (2013) demonstrated that individuals with low self-concept clarity typically exhibit more feelings of inferiority and introversion, along with increased levels of anxiety and depression.”
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“…have demonstrated no clear evidence of an association between participants’ self-reported level of attentional control ability and their level of performance on attentional control assessment tasks (Quigley et al., 2017; Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2009, 2013; Todd et al., 2020; Williams et al., 2017).”
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“There is mixed evidence concerning the validity of the ACS [51, 53], with some authors arguing that the scale measures beliefs about attentional control ability rather than ability itself [54], which could mean that people high in negative affect respond negatively to ACS questions regardless of their real abilities.”
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“Trait anxiety is associated with self-reported deficits in attentional control [17].”
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“Deficits in these attentional control functions are associated with increased vulnerability to stress and negative mood [46,47].”
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“Prior studies already found no significant associations between self-report and behavioral measures of attention (Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2013; Todd et al., 2022).”
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“In addition, anxiety causes difficulty in directing attentional resources to the task at hand, which can be understood as an "inability to focus" (Shi et al. 2019) (Reinholdt-Dunne et al. 2013).”
Executive attention control impairments and social anxiety symptoms in children
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Pacheco‐Unguetti, A. P., Acosta, A., & Lupiáñez, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1539992 · Cited by 4
Behavior, neuropsychology and fMRI
Bennett, M. R., Hatton, S. N., Hermens, D. F., & Lagopoulos, J. (2016) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2016.07.001 · Cited by 5
Examining the Relationships between Empathy, Mood, and Facial Mimicry
Rehberger, C. (2014) · Digital Commons-DePaul (DePaul University) · Cited by 4
Yuan, Y. O. U., & Wang, L. (2020) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2020.00612 · Cited by 3
The Relationship between Attentional Function and Stuttering Severity in Adults who Stutter
Haitani, T., & Kumano, H. (2016) · The Japan Journal of Logopedics and Phoniatrics · doi:10.5112/jjlp.57.217 · Cited by 3
Schweizer, S., Satpute, A. B., Atzil, S., Field, A. P., Hitchcock, C., Black, M., Barrett, L. F., & Dalgleish, T. (2018) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/vxrmp · Cited by 7
Södermark, M. (2023) · Linköping University medical dissertations · doi:10.3384/9789180753692 · Cited by 2
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Bagri, G., & Abrar, S. (2024) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2024.2372189 · Cited by 1
“Also, individuals with increased anxiety are poor at concentrating and resisting distraction (Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2013).”
Marder, M. A., Finley, J. A., Piszczor, J., Valencia, V. A., Kukla, T. J., Fawcett, M. K., Shapiro, G., Phillips, M. S., Cerny, B. M., & Soble, J. R. (2025) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-025-10250-8 · Cited by 1
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Self-reported and task-based measures of attention control are distinct
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Cambaz, H. Z., & Ünal, G. (2023) · Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment · doi:10.1080/10911359.2023.2165589 · Cited by 2
“…between performance (behavioral) measures and self-report measures has been previously examined in terms of different concepts, such as wisdom (Glück, et al., 2013), empathy (Melchers et al., 2015), self-control (Allom et al., 2016), and attentional control (Reinholdt-Dunne et al., 2013).”
BackgroundMeditasi Mindfulness: Upaya Mengatasi Kecemasan Pustakawan
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Townshend, K., & Bornschlegl, M. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-47219-0_85 · Cited by 1
Anxiety level in context of chosen pro-health attitudes of male students during COVID-19 pandemic
Ortenburger, D. E., Wąsik, J., Павлова, Ю., & Mosler, D. (2021) · Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.31083/jomh.2021.093 · Cited by 1
Associations between Recurrent COVID-19, Attention, and Mental Health: A Longitudinal StudyPreprint
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Sluis, R. A. (2018) · Griffith Research Online · doi:10.25904/1912/3368
Deros, D. E., Grant, D. M., Kraft, J. D., Nagel, K. M., & Hahn, B. J. (2022) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-021-09924-w
Metadata
- Authors
- Reinholdt-Dunne, M. L., Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P.
- Affiliations
- University of Southampton (GB)
- Venue
- Cognition & Emotion
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2013-04
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 430-440
- ISSN
- 0269-9931 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0600
- OpenAlex
- W2077841173
- Cited by
- 119
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 5.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cognition & Emotion (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- attentional control, Attention Network Task, attentional flexibility, attentional shift, anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, individual differences, non-clinical sample
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety, Attention, Depression, Female, Humans, Male, Psychomotor Performance, Executive Function, Self Report
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