AI companions for lonely individuals and the role of social presence
Open accessAbstract
Artificial intelligence (AI) companiosns (e.g., social machine agents, social robots) are becoming increasingly available. Considering that AI companions can be beneficial for individuals seeking companionships or relationships, the social and relational aspects of an AI companion are important to investigate. To understand people’s perceptions of an AI companion, this study examines the roles of social presence and warmth of an AI companion through an online experiment. Primary findings indicate that social presence of a disembodied AI companion fosters greater perceived usefulness of the AI companion and willingness to recommend the AI companion for lonely individuals. Collectively, the study highlights the importance of social presence for disembodied AI companions.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Social presence gratifications were consistent with prior findings.
“Social presence gratifications were consistent with prior findings (Merrill Jr et al., 2022)”
From Intimate Strangers by Design: A Uses and Gratifications Analysis of AI Companionship (2026) · cites this paper as Merrill Jr et al., 2022
The available copy shows the paper’s title, section headings and links, but no substantive text from the Results or Discussion. Searches for social presence gratifications and comparisons with prior findings found no passage that could verify the claim. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAI companions high in social presence and warmth are perceived as more useful and emotionally satisfying, especially for individuals experiencing isolation.
“AI companions high in social presence and warmth are perceived as more useful and emotionally satisfying, especially for individuals experiencing isolation (Merrill Jr, Kim, and Collins 2022).”
From Toward an Ethic of Synthetic Relationality: Identity, Intimacy, and Risk in AI-Mediated Roleplay Environments (2025) · cites this paper as Merrill Jr, Kim, and Collins 2022
The available copy contains the paper’s title, links, and section headings, but no substantive passages from the Results or Discussion. Searches for social presence, warmth, usefulness, emotional satisfaction, and loneliness returned no text addressing the claimed relationship, so it cannot be verified from this copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe appeal of AI agents as companions lies in their consistency and perceived non-judgmentality.
“The appeal of AI agents as companions lies in their consistency and perceived non-judgmentality [27, 40, 55]”
From Emotional Coregulation in Close Relationships with AI Agents: A Survey of ChatGPT and Replika Users (2025) · cites this paper as [40]
The supplied passages and indexed search results contain only the paper’s title, links, and section headings; no substantive passage or page is available. Searches for non-judgmentality and for consistency or reliability found no text addressing either proposed reason for AI companions’ appeal. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705519909540118 · Cited by 108,788 · cited 1× · see citing works
“According to Hu and Bentler (1999), the recommended acceptable fit indices call for a non-significant chi-square test, CFI > .95, SRMR .08, and RMSEA .06.”
BackgroundPerceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology
Davis, F. D. (1989) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.2307/249008 · Cited by 68,483 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Research using the original measure finds that it is positively associated with self-reported usage and user acceptance of a technology (Davis, 1989).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential(2013) · Cited by 44,563 · see citing works
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-3702 · Cited by 4,870 · see citing works
Computer-Mediated Communication: Impersonal, Interpersonal, and Hyperpersonal Interaction
WALTHER, J. B. (1996) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/009365096023001001 · Cited by 4,798 · cited 1× · see citing works
“One potential explanation is due to people’s tendency to idealize or hyperpersonalize the other based on available cues in a mediated environment (Walther, 1996).”
BackgroundUniversal dimensions of social cognition: warmth and competence
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., & Glick, P. (2007) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.005 · Cited by 4,567 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Warmth , or social warmth, is the feeling of intimacy and friendliness (Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick, 2007).”
BackgroundMethodMachines and Mindlessness: Social Responses to Computers
Nass, C., & Moon, Y. (2000) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00153 · Cited by 4,022 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This is explained by humans failing to focus on the asocial characteristics of a computers (Nass & Moon, 2000).”
BackgroundAt the Heart of It All: The Concept of Presence
Lombard, M., & Ditton, T. B. (2006) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.1997.tb00072.x · Cited by 3,754 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This definition is aligned with the idea of social richness, which is primarily concerned with sociable, warm, personal, or intimate perceptions of the other (Lombard & Ditton, 1997).”
BackgroundA survey of socially interactive robots
Fong, T., Nourbakhsh, I., & Dautenhahn, K. (2003) · Robotics and Autonomous Systems · doi:10.1016/s0921-8890(02)00372-x · Cited by 3,162 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Although technological features of embodiment can effectively facilitate social interactions with humans (Fong et al., 2003), it is unclear if this finding is true for AI designed for social purposes, such as AI companions.”
BackgroundToward a More Robust Theory and Measure of Social Presence: Review and Suggested Criteria
Biocca, F. A., Harms, C., & Burgoon, J. K. (2003) · PRESENCE Virtual and Augmented Reality · doi:10.1162/105474603322761270 · Cited by 2,230 · see citing works
Investigating the Importance of Trust on Adopting an Autonomous Vehicle
Choi, J. K., & Ji, Y. G. (2015) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2015.1070549 · Cited by 1,200 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Willingness to recommend to lonely individuals ( α = .96) was measured with four items modified from Choi and Ji (2015) (e.g., “If an AI/robot like Ash in the clip is given to me I might recommend it to lonely individuals”).”
MethodA Systematic Review of Social Presence: Definition, Antecedents, and Implications
Oh, C. S., Bailenson, J. N., & Welch, G. F. (2018) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2018.00114 · Cited by 1,032 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Research highlights the importance of social presence (Oh, Bailenson, & Welch, 2018), particularly in humans’ perceptions about machine agents (e.g., Spence, Westerman, Edwards, & Edwards, 2014).”
BackgroundHandbook of communication and emotion: research, theory, applications, and contexts
(1998) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.35-5367 · Cited by 707 · see citing works
More human than you: Attributing humanness to self and others.
Haslam, N., Bain, P. G., Douge, L., Lee, M., & Bastian, B. B. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.937 · Cited by 523 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Warmth is a core component of what constitutes human essence (Haslam, Bain, Douge, Lee, & Bastian, 2005), which is important for relationship development and maintenance (Andersen & Guerrero, 1998).”
BackgroundLee, K. M., Jung, Y., Kim, J., & Kim, S. R. (2006) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2006.05.002 · Cited by 510 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Social presence is conceptualized as “a psychological state in which virtual social actors are experienced as actual social actors” (Lee, 2006, p. 45).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Benefits of Interactions with Physically Present Robots over Video-Displayed Agents
Bainbridge, W. A., Hart, J., Kim, E. S., & Scassellati, B. M. (2010) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-010-0082-7 · Cited by 478 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Although indirect interactions can be useful, there are potential differences between direct and indirect interactions (e.g., Bainbridge, Hart, Kim, & Scassellati, 2011) and regarding how the indirect interaction occurs (e.g., virtually vs. face-to-face).”
BackgroundDoes Facebook make you lonely?: A meta analysis
Song, H., Zmyslinski-Seelig, A., Kim, J.-Y., Drent, A. M., Victor, A., Omori, K., & Allen, M. R. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.011 · Cited by 454 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Considering that lonely individuals tend to seek more connections in mediated environments (Song et al., 2014), these social aspects may be particularly influential when considering a disembodied AI companion.”
BackgroundSelf-citationSocial categorization of social robots: Anthropomorphism as a function of robot group membership
Eyssel, F., & Kuchenbrandt, D. (2012) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.2011.02082.x · Cited by 360 · cited 4× · see citing works
“The original measure of warmth is related to mind attributions of social robots, the view that entities other than humans can hold mental capabilities (Eyssel & Kuchenbrandt, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialTask force report: Social networks as mediators of social support
Mitchell, R. E., & Trickett, E. J. (1980) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/bf00780665 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Reichmann, F. (1959) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/00332747.1959.11023153 · Cited by 270 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Loneliness is a psychological state where individuals feel lost, distressed, and isolated from others (Fromm-Reichmann, 1959).”
BackgroundThe substitutability of physical and social warmth in daily life.
Bargh, J. A., & Shalev, I. (2011) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0023527 · Cited by 244 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Further, social warmth can help address loneliness, or social coldness (Bargh & Shalev, 2012).”
BackgroundOdekerken-Schröder, G., Mele, C., Russo-Spena, T., Mahr, D., & Ruggiero, A. (2020) · Journal of Service Management · doi:10.1108/josm-05-2020-0148 · Cited by 212 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In particular, acknowledging the potential for AI to serve a social or relational role (Odekerken-Schröder et al., 2020), this study examines how people perceive the use of an AI companion for lonely individuals.”
BackgroundThe Lonely Consumer: Loner or Conformer?
Wang, J., Zhu, R., & Shiv, B. (2012) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/661552 · Cited by 167 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Given that lonely individuals are susceptible to prosocial suggestions from those in their life (Wang, Zhu, & Shiv, 2012), providing informational support might be an effective strategy.”
BackgroundWelcoming Our Robot Overlords: Initial Expectations About Interaction With a Robot
Spence, P. R., Westerman, D., Edwards, C. C., & Edwards, A. P. (2014) · Communication Research Reports · doi:10.1080/08824096.2014.924337 · Cited by 159 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Research highlights the importance of social presence (Oh, Bailenson, & Welch, 2018), particularly in humans’ perceptions about machine agents (e.g., Spence, Westerman, Edwards, & Edwards, 2014).”
BackgroundModeling the acceptance of socially interactive robotics
Shin, D., & Choo, H. (2011) · Interaction Studies Social Behaviour and Communication in Biological and Artificial Systems · doi:10.1075/is.12.3.04shi · Cited by 133 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, Shin and Choo (2011) note that social presence intensifies the effects of perceived usefulness of robot interactions on favorable attitudes toward the robot.”
BackgroundAnthropocentrism and computers
Nass, C., Lombard, M., Henriksen, L., & Steuer, J. (1995) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/01449299508914636 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Loneliness and the use of social media to follow celebrities: A moderating role of social presence
Kim, J., Kim, J., & Yang, H. (2019) · The Social Science Journal · doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2018.12.007 · Cited by 81 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Greater perceived social presence of others can intensify lonely individuals’ positive media experiences (Kim, Song, & Lee, 2018) and close relationship perceptions of others connected via technology (Kim, Kim, & Yang, 2019).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBuilding relationships within corporate SNS accounts through social presence formation
Han, S., Min, J., & Lee, H. (2016) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2016.06.004 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Kim, J., Song, H., & Lee, S. (2017) · Mass Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/15205436.2017.1350715 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationPositive attitudes and negative expectations in lonely individuals
Bellucci, G. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-75712-3 · Cited by 54 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Lonely individuals have the desire to build and maintain social relationships, but they tend to evaluate social interactions negatively (Bellucci, 2020).”
BackgroundHelping Not Hurting: Applying the Stereotype Content Model and BIAS Map to Social Robotics
Mieczkowski, H., Liu, X., Hancock, J. T., & Reeves, B. B. (2019) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1109/hri.2019.8673307 · Cited by 53 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This finding might be because people attribute warmth to robots based on their appearance (Mieczkowski, Liu, Hancock, & Reeves, 2019).”
BackgroundThe Peculiarities of Robot Embodiment (EmCorp-Scale)
Hoffmann, L., Bock, N., & Pütten, A. M. R. V. D. (2018) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1145/3171221.3171242 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Scheunemann, M. M., Cuijpers, R. H., & Salge, C. (2020) · IEEE RO-MAN · doi:10.1109/ro-man47096.2020.9223478 · Cited by 50 · cited 2× · see citing works
“This finding is surprising, because people often perceive some degree of warmth when engaging with machine agents (Eyssel & Kuchenbrandt, 2012) and warmth is an important factor that influences perceptions of machine agents (Scheunemann et al., 2020).”
BackgroundThe Stereotype Content Model Applied to Human-Robot Interactions in Groups
Oliveira, R., Arriaga, P., Correia, F., & Paiva, A. (2019) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1109/hri.2019.8673171 · Cited by 47 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Collectively, these findings imply that greater perceived warmth of machine agents could positively influence how humans perceive them (Oliveira, Arriaga, Correia, & Paiva, 2019).”
BackgroundChung-En, Y. (2018) · International Conference on Industrial Technology and Management (ICITM) · doi:10.1109/icitm.2018.8333927 · Cited by 35 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Interestingly, people rate humans and humanlike robots with similar degrees of warmth, particularly when robots model human behaviors (Chung-En, 2018).”
BackgroundThe Value of Human Warmth: Social Presence Cues and Computer-Mediated Communications
Song, J. H., Hollenbeck, C. R., & Zinkhan, G. M. (2008) · Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Pentina, I., Xie, T., Hancock, T. D., & Bailey, A. A. (2023) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.21853 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
AI Companions Reduce Loneliness
De Freitas, J., Oğuz-Uğuralp, Z., Uğuralp, A. K., & Puntoni, S. (2026) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucaf040 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Kim, H., & Park, M. (2023) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103581 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Kim, J., Merrill, K., Xu, K., & Kelly, S. E. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107383 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Self-citationXie, Y., Liang, C., Zhou, P., & Jiang, L. (2024) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103599 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Trust in Human and Virtual Live Streamers: The Role of Integrity and Social Presence
Wang, K., Wu, J., Sun, Y., Chen, J., Pu, Y., & Qi, Y. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2279410 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“For AI companions, social presence can affect the perception of usefulness that perceived warmth cannot, especially when it is disembodied (Merrill et al., 2022), such as in virtual streamers.”
AI Companions Reduce Loneliness
De Freitas, J., Uğuralp, A. K., Uğuralp, Z., & Puntoni, S. (2024) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4893097 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Hu, P., Gong, Y. Y., Lu, Y., & Ding, A. W. (2022) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2022.04.006 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Dang, J., & Liu, L. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107637 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Li, N., Xuan, C., & Chen, R. (2024) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2024.103890 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
RETRACTED: The impact of generative AI on essay revisions and student engagement
Lo, N., Wong, A., & Chan, S. (2025) · Computers and Education Open · doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2025.100249 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
RetractedPotential and pitfalls of romantic Artificial Intelligence (AI) companions: A systematic review
Ho, J. Q. H., Hu, M., Chen, T. X., & Hartanto, A. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100715 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Emotional AI and the rise of pseudo-intimacy: are we trading authenticity for algorithmic affection?
Babu, J., Joseph, D., Kumar, R., Alexander, E. M., Sasi, R. K., & Joseph, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1679324 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Merrill, K., Mikkilineni, S. D., & Dehnert, M. (2025) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.15400 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“37 Indeed, previous research has already documented the potential impact of AI companions and chatbots serving as a source of social support, 5,6,8,9,13 and participants in one study rated humans, social robots, and AI similarly on impressions of social support.”
InfluentialSelf-citationThe AI-mediated intimacy economy: a paradigm shift in digital interactions
Bozdağ, A. A. (2025) · AI & SOCIETY · doi:10.1007/s00146-024-02132-6 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Understanding Continued Use Intention of AI Assistants
Xie, Y., Zhao, S., Zhou, P., & Liang, C. (2023) · Journal of Computer Information Systems · doi:10.1080/08874417.2023.2167134 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“25 But very little research has been done on the relationship between AI use and loneliness relief.”
BackgroundCombating Loneliness with Artificial Intelligence: An AI-Based Emotional Support Model
Sullivan, Y., Nyawa, S., & Fosso Wamba, S. (2023) · Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences · doi:10.24251/hicss.2023.541 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“AI companions can benefit individuals seeking companionships (e.g., Merrill Jr. et al., 2022).”
BackgroundBai, S., Yu, D., Han, C., Yang, M., Gupta, B. B., Arya, V., Panigrahi, P. K., Tang, R., He, H., & Zhao, J. (2024) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2024.123395 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Jin, S. A., & Viswanathan, V. (2024) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-023-01832-9 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Lai, L., Pan, Y., Xu, R., & Jiang, Y. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1580826 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Instead, they are more likely to seek basic social interaction or companionship (67).”
Ni, B., Wu, F., & Huang, Q. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20043772 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Investigating the importance of social presence on intentions to adopt an AI romantic partner
Kim, J., Merrill, K., & Collins, C. (2023) · Communication Research Reports · doi:10.1080/08824096.2022.2159800 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationWilloughby, B. J., Dover, C. R., Hakala, R. M., & Carroll, J. S. (2025) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075251371394 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“One small-scale experimental study found that interactions with AI companions can in fl uence loneliness by shaping users ’ perspectives on AI (Merrill et al., 2022).”
Dong, X., Xie, J., & Gong, H. (2025) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2024.0468 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Previous research has highlighted the differential impact of embodiment or disembodiment on individuals ’ responses to AI, 29,30 necessitating further investigation to validate the moderating role of AI types (physically embod-ied vs. disembodied) on the correlation between AI use and loneliness.”
Wang, B., Han, Y., Xie, F., Kandampully, J. A., & Duan, Q. (2025) · Service Industries Journal · doi:10.1080/02642069.2025.2460597 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“These individuals typically have a stronger desire for social interaction (Chang, 2021; Jecker, 2021; Merrill et al., 2022).”
Social-Oriented Communication with AI Companions: Benefits, Costs, and Contextual Patterns
Bayor, L., Weinert, C., Maier, C., & Weitzel, T. (2025) · Business & Information Systems Engineering · doi:10.1007/s12599-025-00955-1 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“AI companions could, for instance, be good for mental health by alleviating loneliness in one context (Merrill et al. 2022) but detrimental to mental health through emotional dependence in other contexts (Laesta-dius et al. 2022).”
Social Connectedness Promotes Robot Anthropomorphism
Dang, J., & Liu, L. (2023) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506231170917 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“As human–robot interaction is ubiquitous, robot anthropomorphism has become increasingly common in people’s everyday lives (Merrill et al., 2022).”
BackgroundSung, G., Guillain, L. V., & Schneider, B. (2025) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-024-00455-5 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…barrier to supporting motivation and affect with AI comes from its perceived lack of warmth and empathy (Bigman & Gray, 2018; Glikson & Woolley, 2020; Liu et al., 2017; Merrill et al. Jr, 2022), or what could be called “humanness,” generative AI may achieve greater success in this front.”
Humanizing AI for trust: the critical role of social presence in adoption
Ngo, V. M. (2025) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-025-02506-4 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Weinstein, N., Itzchakov, G., & Maniaci, M. R. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Artificial Humans · doi:10.1016/j.chbah.2025.100149 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Bai, S., Yu, D., Han, C., Yang, M., Islam, N., Yang, Z., Tang, R., & Zhao, J. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management · doi:10.1109/tem.2023.3327500 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“The visual AI voice assistant such as Nomi plays the role of a virtual companion that functions as a safety reminder and mood regulator when driving alone [98], alleviating drivers’ isolation [100].”
BackgroundChinchilla, P., & Kim, J. (2024) · Communication Studies · doi:10.1080/10510974.2024.2337955 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Noting the importance of social presence in media experiences (e.g., Kim & Merrill, 2022; Kim et al., 2023; Merrill et al., 2022), the mediating role of social presence has been well documented in the literature.”
Self-citationLancaster, C., Duan, W., Mallick, R., & Mcneese, N. J. (2025) · Proc. ACM Hum. Comput. Interact. · doi:10.1145/3710998 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Intermediates, while acknowledging AI’s analytical abilities, focus more on its role as a companion, a shift stemming from their evolving expertise and the growing importance of social integration and emotional support [75, 77, 82, 91, 158].”
My Health Advisor is a Robot: Understanding Intentions to Adopt a Robotic Health Advisor
Kim, J., Merrill, K., Xu, K., & Collins, C. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2239559 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Although this approach has been used in other studies (e.g., Merrill Jr. et al., 2022) and is useful to explore how people perceive this type of health technology, the findings would be more meaningful and applicable if an actual interaction occurred.”
Self-citationXie, Z. (2025) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051251323391 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“In addition to providing people with necessary information, an important difference between generative AI and traditional media and social media is that it can provide people with emotional support and companionship (Merrill et al., 2022; Zhou & Association for Computing Machinery, 2020).”
Liu, T., Lo, T.-Y., Wen, K.-H., Sun, Y., & Wei, Z.-Q. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1687686 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
AI Companions Reduce Loneliness
De Freitas, J., Uguralp, A. K., Uguralp, Z. O., & Stefano, P. (2024) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2407.19096 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Indrayanti, I., Salsabila, A. K., Amrita, V., Alhaddad, M. M., Saskia, A. B., & Ramadhani, D. P. (2025) · SSM - Mental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100504 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Managing online learning burnout via investigating the role of loneliness during COVID-19
Li, H., & Yang, J. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-02419-3 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“…intense feelings of loneliness under a stress-accompanied formal learning context, although many studies hold that AI agents can provide people with human-similar social warmth [68] We would not recommend fully using AI agents as a replacement for authentic communication between human beings.”
The AI transparency dilemma: when more is less for trust and adoption
Ngo, V. M. (2025) · Information Discovery and Delivery · doi:10.1108/idd-03-2025-0056 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Human– AI partnerships: Living and working with AI Assistants, AI Agents, and AI Companions
Patil, R. K., Rice, D. H., & Janiszewski, C. A. (2026) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcpy.70025 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Li, L., Kong, S., Zhao, H., Li, C., Teng, Y., & Wang, Y. (2025) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.13781 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“26,39,40 Therefore, the psychological impact of weak physical context seems to be uni-lateral.”
Influence of a robotic companion on women's food choices: Evidence from an imaginary task
Guo, X., Wang, C., & Wan, X. I. (2024) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12588 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Symons, J., & Sanwoolu, O. D. (2025) · Philosophy & Technology · doi:10.1007/s13347-025-00845-0 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Co-Designing Companion Robots for the Wild: Ideating Towards a Design Space
Ahmed, E., Cosio, L. D., Genç, Ç., Hamari, J., & Buruk, O. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2524500 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Undoubtedly, utility is of great value, especially in the wild, however, too much focus on utility might frame the robot as more like a tool and less like a companion (Merrill et al., 2022).”
Digital Doppelgängers, Human Relationships, and Practical Identity
Voinea, C., Mann, S. P., Savulescu, J., & Earp, B. D. (2025) · Bioethics · doi:10.1111/bioe.70026 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Interaction with AI companions and psychological well-being
Zhang, Y., Zhao, D., Hancock, J. T., Kraut, R. E., & Yang, D. (2026) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-026-02516-2 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Duygusal Yalnızlığa Bir Çözüm Olarak Chatgpt: Kişilerarası İletişimin Yeni Aracı
SARIOĞLU, E. B., & GÜREGEN, E. P. (2024) · Türkiye İletişim Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.17829/turcom.1360418 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Should ChatGPT Write Your Breakup Text? Exploring the Role of AI in Relationship Dissolution
Fu, Y., Chen, Y., Lai, Z. G. D. C., & Hiniker, A. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3757424 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Nadimi, F., Abdisarabshali, P., Borazjani, K., Chakareski, J., & Hosseinalipour, S. (2025) · npj Wireless Technology · doi:10.1038/s44459-025-00003-0 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“XRexperiencesarehighlypersonalized,whichcallsforlocal modelsthatcanadapttoindividualuserpreferencesandbehaviorsinreal-time.”
Measuring and understanding emotional attachment in human–AI relationships
Cheng, N., & Yu, R. (2026) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139.2026.2622539 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
AI lovers, friends and partners: consumer imagination work in AI humanization
Minina, A., Masè, S., & Smith, J. (2025) · Consumption Markets & Culture · doi:10.1080/10253866.2025.2505013 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Older adults' perspectives on multimodal interaction with a conversational virtual coach
Kamali, M. E., Angelini, L., Lalanne, D., Khaled, O. A., & Mugellini, E. (2023) · Frontiers in Computer Science · doi:10.3389/fcomp.2023.1125895 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Human-AI Interactions in Teacher Education: Examining Social Presence and Friendship
Huang, H.-W., & Chang, J. C. (2024) · Proceedings of the 2024 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Teacher Education · doi:10.1145/3702386.3702399 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“This constant availability makes it easier to develop human–AI friendships compared to human–human friendships because the latter requires greater social independence to manage their own time and availability to maintain such relationships (De Cicco et al., 2020[1]; Merrill et al., 2022 [15]).”
Mukherjee, P., Agarwal, M. K., & Chatterjee, S. (2026) · Journal of Consumer Behaviour · doi:10.1002/cb.70115 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Kim, J., Kelly, S. E., & Xu, K. (2024) · Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01463373.2024.2368714 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“A body of literature has documented that individuals’ attitudes toward new technology play a role in the assessment of new technology and its use and implications (c. f., Kim et al., 2023; Kim, Xu, et al., 2022; Merrill Jr. et al., 2022).”
Self-citationBhat, M. (2025) · Proceedings of the AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society · doi:10.1609/aies.v8i1.36560 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kim, J., Jin, X., Xu, K., Chen, X., & Yang, H. (2024) · The Social Science Journal · doi:10.1080/03623319.2024.2421610 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“For example, Merrill et al. (2022) research suggests a possible use of an AI companion to address loneliness.”
Self-citationBanking on voice: AI attributes, technology perceptions, and trust in banking voicebot acceptance
Liew, T. W., Lim, C. T. M., Khan, M. T. I., & Tan, S.-M. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100812 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Daryanto, T., Stil, S., Ding, X., Manesh, D., Lee, S. W., Lee, T., Lunn, S. J., Rodriguez, S. L., Brown, C., & Rho, E. H. R. (2025) · IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC) · doi:10.1109/vl-hcc65237.2025.00029 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Although AI can provide certain forms of emotional support [102], it currently struggles to replicate the nuanced emotional interactions that humans provide [103].”
Kim, J., Merrill, K., Jin, X., Collins, C., & Xu, K. (2023) · The Social Science Journal · doi:10.1080/03623319.2023.2289241 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“In fact, this approach of using video clips is commonly used when conducting research on new technologies (c.f., Kim et al., 2021; Merrill et al., 2022).”
Self-citationLanguage Agents and Malevolent Design
Yum, I. (2024) · Philosophy & Technology · doi:10.1007/s13347-024-00794-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Emotional Coregulation in Close Relationships with AI Agents: A Survey of ChatGPT and Replika Users
Pruss, E., Alimardani, M., Struijs, S., & Koole, S. L. (2025) · Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Human-Agent Interaction · doi:10.1145/3765766.3765801 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“The appeal of AI agents as companions lies in their consistency and perceived non-judgmentality [27, 40, 55], but these same features may also limit their capacity for mutual growth or challenge; elements that often define human relationships.”
Value-Driven Analysis and Design: Applying Domain-Driven Practices in Ethical Software Engineering
Kapferer, S., Zimmermann, O., & Stocker, M. (2024) · European Conference on Pattern Languages of Programs · doi:10.1145/3698322.3698332 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
From moral panic to normalization: comparing users and non-users of AI companionship apps
Novozhilova, E., Vu, C., & Katz, J. E. (2025) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-025-02751-7 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
König, P. D., & Mehrotra, S. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2594748 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Only few studies do not find an association between emotional constructs and behavioral and attitu-dinal outcomes (e.g., Acosta-Enriquez et al., 2024; Merrill et al., 2022).”
StreamMind: Unlocking Full Frame Rate Streaming Video Dialogue through Event-Gated Cognition
Ding, X., Wu, H. W., Yang, Y., Jiang, S., Zhang, Q., Bai, D., Chen, Z., & Cao, T. (2025) · IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv51701.2025.01249 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The advancement of large foundation models is driving an increasing number of real-world human-AI interaction applications, such as AI home companions [3, 41] and human-robot collaboration [54, 63].”
Yu, D., Zhao, J., Tang, R., Han, C., & Yang, M. (2025) · Journal of Consumer Behaviour · doi:10.1002/cb.70006 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Adoption in human-like AI system: A Moderated-Mediation approach
Ngo, M. V., Lê, H., & Vuong, T. N. (2026) · Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market and Complexity · doi:10.1016/j.joitmc.2026.100722 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Virtual resonance: analyzing IPA usage intensity under COVID-19's isolating canopy
Jo, H., & Baek, E.-M. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-64809-8 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Shao, C., Kim, Y., & Zhao, F. (2025) · Communication Research Reports · doi:10.1080/08824096.2025.2567253 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…presence—which often refers to the feeling of closeness or presence that arises when interacting with others through digital mediums— has been widely recognized as a key factor influencing users’ adoption of AI-enabled technologies (e.g., Kim et al., 2023; Merrill et al., 2022; Shao & Kwon, 2021).”
Sharan, N. N., Peter, J., Lemmens, J. S., Kühne, R., de Jong, C., & Barco, À. (2025) · International journal of human computer interactions · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2575299 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Similarly, social presence facilitated greater perceived usefulness of a virtual AI companion for lonely individuals (Merrill et al., 2022).”
Liu, Y., Song, C., Huang, D., Liu, X., Li, Z., & Hu, B. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2598675 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“However, previous studies remain mixed results: while some studies report positive associations between social presence and both warmth and competence, others find that social presence affects perceived usefulness more than warmth (Merrill et al., 2022).”
Yoon, Y., & Lee, O.-K. D. (2026) · Information Systems Frontiers · doi:10.1007/s10796-026-10702-w · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Luther, T., Mayer, M., & Kimmerle, J. (2026) · Journal of Psychology and AI · doi:10.1080/29974100.2026.2652861 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Conversational AI and Personal Growth: Insights from a Critical Integrative Review
Sharma, S., Vohra, P., & Vowels, L. M. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16050756 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Social Features of Artificial Intelligence Companions for Children
Chang, S. J., Han, S.-H., & Park, K. C. (2023) · Journal of Digital Contents Society · doi:10.9728/dcs.2023.24.12.3199 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
From Customer Relationships to AI Companionships: Transforming Marketing with Feeling AI
Chaturvedi, R., Verma, S., & Srivastava, V. (2025) · Vision The Journal of Business Perspective · doi:10.1177/09722629251340483 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Zou, W., Huang, L., & Li, X. (2025) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637751.2025.2561970 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“As vital resources for alleviating loneliness and enhancing mental well-being, AI companions have garnered significant attention in an increasingly digital society (Merrill et al., 2022).”
The Effect of Perceived Affordance on AIGC Platform User Loyalty
Zhou, T., & Jiang, Y. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2580552 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Social presence plays a crucial role in enhancing users’ positive feelings toward the chatbot (Merrill et al., 2022).”
Spence, C., & Velasco, C. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-91050-0_5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Wei, H., Xiang, B., Zheng, X., & Yang, J. (2026) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2026.2630076 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Empirical studies have demonstrated that these applications succeed by establishing human-machine intimacy through high anthropomorphism (Hu et al., 2025; Xie et al., 2023), social presence (Jin & Youn, 2023; Merrill et al., 2022), and psychological attachment (Chen, Jing, et al., 2025).”
Metakommunikation und AI Companionship
Kalwa, N. (2026) · Zeitschrift für Kulturlinguistik – Revue de linguistique culturelle – Rivista di linguistica culturale – Journal of Cultural Linguistics · doi:10.5077/journals/zfkl.2026.e2369 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Liu, T., Sun, Y., Wei, Z.-Q., & Lo, T.-Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1827571 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Research on virtual companions shows that users are attracted to systems that exhibit social presence, emotional accessibility, warmth, and relational coherence (Chaturvedi et al., 2024; Merrill et al., 2022; Strohmann et al., 2023).”
InfluentialSun, Y., Liu, J., Liu, T., Wei, Z., & Shen, H. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1841223 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…virtual companion systems to shift from being mere information-processing tools to becoming interactive objects with social attributes, thereby giving them an increasingly important place in human–computer interaction and affective computing research (Merrill Jr et al., 2022; Zhang and Li, 2025).”
Ferrario, A., Vinay, R., Casserini, M., & Facchini, A. (2026) · ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT) · doi:10.1145/3805689.3812324 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Grohol, J. M. (2026) · Journal of Participatory Medicine · doi:10.2196/95153 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“A study by Merrill et al [20] found that social presence, the sense that one’s friend is meaningfully “there” and present, and perceived warmth were the key mediating variables through which AI companion interactions affected loneliness and willingness to engage.”
Liu, P. L., & Yeo, T. E. D. (2026) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2026.2719169 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
DEVELOPMENT OF LUNTIAN: A CHATBOT COMPANION
Ayo, E. B., Calinisan, B. P., Gondra, R. R., Manubay, M. V., Roldan, H. V., & Punsalan, E. (2023) · International Journal of Research Publications · doi:10.47119/ijrp10013811220235716 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Gawlik-Kobylińska, M., & Rojek, M. P. (2024) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-53598-7_55 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Social Robot Services to Substitute Humans as a Companion and Virtual Assistant
Halim, E., Wijaya, L. A., & Sundaram, D. (2023) · IEEE International Conference on Smart Technology (ICE-SMARTec) · doi:10.1109/ice-smartech59237.2023.10461944 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“It demonstrates that the social presence factor, with warmth as one of the factors, may give a positive opinion of robot companions [9].”
BackgroundEmbracing the Future: Unveiling the Revolution of Human-AI Interaction in the Digital Education Era
Cotino-Arbelo, A. E., González, C. S. G., & Molina‐Gil, J. (2023) · International Conference on Virtual Campus (JICV) · doi:10.1109/jicv59748.2023.10565703 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The role of AI devices in their lives is now multifaceted, serving as sources of information, entertainment, companionship, and even educational tools [28, 29].”
BackgroundFrom Personal Knowledge Management to the Second Brain to the Personal AI Companian
Aal, K., & Rüller, S. (2024) · International ACM SIGGROUP Conference on Supporting Group Work (GROUP) · doi:10.1145/3688828.3699647 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
An Intuitive and Modular Framework for Enhanced Human-Machine Synergy
Kashyap, M., Patel, A. D., Kumar, A., & Kaur, G. (2025) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-8336-6_5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Chatting Away Loneliness: Embracing New Connections Between Humans and Artificial Intelligence
Vandhika, S., & Sahrani, R. (2025) · INSAN Jurnal Psikologi dan Kesehatan Mental · doi:10.20473/jpkm.v10i12025.1-20 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Isolated Circuits: Human Experience and Robot Design for the Future of Loneliness
Dwyer, L. J. (2024) · doi:10.32920/26883778.v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kempt, H. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780198945215.003.0060 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Systematic Literature Review and Multi-Stakeholder Ethical Framework for Social ChatbotsPreprint
Piispanen, J.-R., Myllyviita, T., Vakkuri, V., & Rousi, R. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5220728 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Assunção, G., Sorrentino, A., Dias, J. M. M., Castelo-Branco, M. S., Menezes, P. J., & Cavallo, F. (2023) · IEEE RO-MAN · doi:10.1109/ro-man57019.2023.10309410
“In recent years, the field of social robotics has been gaining traction in the research community as a potential mitigator of contemporary societal issues related with lack of companionship [1].”
BackgroundCommunicating with Machines: Future Trajectories in the Field of Human-Machine Communication
Kim, I., Etzrodt, K., Prahl, A., & Edwards, C. C. (2024) · Global Journal of Media Studies · doi:10.26599/gjms.2024.9330006
- Authors
- Merrill, K., Kim, J., & Collins, C.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- University of Central Florida (US)
- St Johns River State College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Merrill, Kelly
- Venue
- Communication Research Reports
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2022-03-12
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 93-103
- ISSN
- 0882-4096 (ISSN-L)
- 1746-4099
- OpenAlex
- W4220880657
- Cited by
- 142
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 53 · 2025: 46 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 3
- FWCI
- 21.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Communication Research Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › AI in Service Interactions
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Innovative Human-Technology Interaction
- Keywords
- AI companions, social presence, loneliness, social robots, perceived usefulness, recommendation intention, human-AI relationship
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
