The Ethical Challenges of Socially Responsible Science
Open accessAbstract
Social responsibility is an essential part of the responsible conduct of research that presents difficult ethical questions for scientists. Recognizing one's social responsibilities as a scientist is an important first step toward exercising social responsibility, but it is only the beginning, since scientists may confront difficult value questions when deciding how to act responsibly. Ethical dilemmas related to socially responsible science fall into at least three basic categories: 1) dilemmas related to problem selection, 2) dilemmas related to publication and data sharing, and 3) dilemmas related to engaging society. In responding to these dilemmas, scientists must decide how to balance their social responsibilities against other professional commitments and how to avoid compromising their objectivity. In this article, we will examine the philosophical and ethical basis of social responsibility in science, discuss some of the ethical dilemmas related to exercising social responsibility, and make five recommendations to help scientists deal with these issues.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
It is widely accepted that scientists have a moral duty to avoid causing harms to society and to prevent wrongful outcomes and omissions that they can foresee.
“It is widely accepted that scientists have a moral duty to avoid causing harms to society and prevent wrongful outcomes and omissions that they are in a position to foresee”
From Science Communication and the Problematic Impact of Descriptive Norms (2023) · cites this paper as Resnik and Elliott [2016]
AI-generated questions might lead us to waste valuable financial, computational and material resources on projects with little social or economic benefits.
“Even if AI-generated questions do not lead to dangerous research, they might lead us to (immorally) waste valuable financial, computational and material resources on projects with little social or economic benefits [109].”
From Autonomous artificial intelligence, scientific research, and human values (2026) · cites this paper as [109]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
<i>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i>
Kuhn, T. S., & Schlegel, R. (1963) · Physics Today · doi:10.1063/1.3050879 · Cited by 35,538 · see citing works
The Logic of Scientific Discovery.
Hutchison, T. W., & Popper, K. R. (1959) · Economica · doi:10.2307/2550489 · Cited by 7,628 · see citing works
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
Kuhn, T. S. (1996) · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226458106.001.0001 · Cited by 7,281 · see citing works
The Essential Tension: Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change
Kuhn, T. S. (1977) · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226217239.001.0001 · Cited by 3,861 · see citing works
The science question in feminism
Waters, K. (1987) · Women s Studies International Forum · doi:10.1016/0277-5395(87)90077-x · Cited by 3,827 · see citing works
Nagel, E., & Hawkins, D. (1961) · American Journal of Physics · doi:10.1119/1.1937571 · Cited by 3,809 · see citing works
Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry
Longino, H. E. (1990) · doi:10.1515/9780691209753 · Cited by 3,092 · see citing works
The Science Question in Feminism
Harding, S. (1986) · Cornell University Press eBooks · Cited by 2,790 · see citing works
<i>The Logic of Scientific Discovery</i>
Popper, K. R., & Weiss, G. (1959) · Physics Today · doi:10.1063/1.3060577 · Cited by 2,717 · see citing works
Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion
Cialdini, R. B. (1993) · Cited by 2,563 · see citing works
The Honest Broker: Making Sense of Science in Policy and Politics
Pielke, Jr. (2007) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511818110 · Cited by 2,020 · see citing works
Laudan, L. (1977) · Cited by 1,912 · see citing works
Kitcher, P. (2001) · doi:10.1093/0195145836.001.0001 · Cited by 1,540 · cited 4× · see citing works
“Values may also include epistemic goals, such as knowledge or truth, as well as desired epistemic features of hypotheses, theories, and models, such as empirical support, simplicity, generality, precision, rigor, testability, and explanatory power (Longino, 1990; Kitcher, 2001; Haack, 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution
Snow, C. P., & Smoluchowski, R. (1961) · Physics Today · doi:10.1063/1.3057748 · Cited by 1,478 · see citing works
N., E., & Ayer, A. J. (1936) · The Journal of Philosophy · doi:10.2307/2016260 · Cited by 1,175 · see citing works
Therapeutic Songwriting in Music Therapy
Baker, F. A., Wigram, T., Stott, D., & McFerran, K. S. (2008) · Nordic Journal of Music Therapy · doi:10.1080/08098130809478203 · Cited by 1,140 · see citing works
The Scientist Qua Scientist Makes Value Judgments
Rudner, R. S. (1953) · Philosophia Scientiæ · doi:10.1086/287231 · Cited by 748 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Since the 1950s, historians (e.g., Kuhn, 1970, 1977), sociologists (e.g., Barnes, 1977; Latour and Woolgar, 1986), and philosophers (e.g., Rudner, 1953; Laudan, 1977; Harding, 1986) have challenged the notion that science is or ought to be value-free by arguing that non-epistemic values can impact…”
BackgroundInterests and the growth of knowledge
Barnes, S. B. (1977) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 597 · see citing works
Science, Policy, and the Value-Free Ideal
Anderton, D. (2010) · University of Pittsburgh Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctt6wrc78 · Cited by 529 · see citing works
The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution
Topping, J. (1959) · Physics Bulletin · doi:10.1088/0031-9112/10/9/004 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
A Metaphysics for Scientific Realism: Knowing the Unobservable
Chakravartty, A. (2007) · Cited by 462 · see citing works
The Responsible Conduct of Research
(2001) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1046/j.1532-5415.2001.49802.x · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Philosophy of Science after Feminism
Kourany, J. A. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199732623.001.0001 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
The Irreducible Complexity of Objectivity
Douglas, H. (2004) · Synthese · doi:10.1023/b:synt.0000016451.18182.91 · Cited by 235 · cited 6× · see citing works
“, scientific judgments and decisions are based on evidence and reasoning, not on moral, political, or other values (Longino, 1990; Douglas, 2004).”
BackgroundInfluential(1995) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.32-5624 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Is a Little Pollution Good for You?
Elliott, K. (2011) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199755622.001.0001 · Cited by 193 · cited 10× · see citing works
“, moral, political, social, or economic) values in scientific judgment and decisionmaking (Longino, 1990; Resnik, 1998, 2007; Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationOn being a scientist: a guide to responsible conduct in research
National Academy of Sciences, N. A. O. E. (2009) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.47-0824 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Is a little pollution good for you?: incorporating societal values in environmental research
(2011) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.48-6856 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
The Price of Truth: How Money Affects the Norms of Science
Resnik, D. B. (2007) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195309782.001.0001 · Cited by 160 · cited 8× · see citing works
“…may need to address value questions when deciding whether to enter into research contracts with private companies, because companies may seek to impose contractual requirements for research funding that interfere with the free and open exchange of scientific data and information (Resnik, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationScience, Policy, and the Transparency of Values
Elliott, K. C., & Resnik, D. B. (2014) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1408107 · Cited by 154 · cited 8× · see citing works
“…operate at a subconscious level, scientists who decide not to include any policy recommendations in their published articles or commentaries may nevertheless unwittingly make value-based assumptions that impact their research design, data analysis, or data interpretation (Elliott and Resnik, 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationDefending Science - Within Reason
Haack, S. (1999) · Americanae (AECID Library) · doi:10.5007/%x · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Six domains of research ethics
Pimple, K. D. (2002) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-002-0018-1 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Science, Technology, and Democracy
Canan, P., & Kleinman, D. L. (2002) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/3089670 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Science, Technology, and Democracy
Barthe, Y. (2003) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/s0048-7333(02)00141-5 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Responsible Conduct of Research
Michalos, A. C. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_103560 · Cited by 134 · cited 8× · see citing works
“Scientists can honor their obligation to help others by engaging in activities that benefit society, such as research or education (Shamoo and Resnik, 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialResnik, D. B. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139161848 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Self-citationWing, S. (2002) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.02110437 · Cited by 119 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…responsibility to address the social implications of their research (Edsall, 1975; Shrader-Frechette, 1994; Reiser and Bulger, 1997; Kitcher, 2001; Wing, 2002; Beckwith and Huang, 2005; Forge, 2008; Committee and Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, 2009; Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2011;…”
BackgroundMontello, D. R., & Sutton, P. C. (2006) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452225814.n14 · Cited by 110 · cited 3× · see citing works
“It would also be wrong to avoid rescuing someone in danger if one could do so with minimal cost to oneself, especially if one had unique skills or training to be of assistance (Shrader-Frechette, 1994; Elliott, 2011).”
BackgroundTaking Financial Relationships into Account When Assessing Research
Resnik, D. B., & Elliott, K. C. (2013) · Accountability in Research · doi:10.1080/08989621.2013.788383 · Cited by 93 · cited 2× · see citing works
“However, scientists who exercise social responsibility can help protect their reputations by openly discussing their value commitments and clearly distinguishing between the scientific evidence related to an issue and their personal opinions (Resnik and Elliott, 2013, 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBakuwa, J. (2013) · Социология науки и технологий · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Bisphenol A and Risk Management Ethics
Resnik, D. B., & Elliott, K. C. (2014) · Bioethics · doi:10.1111/bioe.12079 · Cited by 83 · cited 2× · see citing works
“However, scientists who exercise social responsibility can help protect their reputations by openly discussing their value commitments and clearly distinguishing between the scientific evidence related to an issue and their personal opinions (Resnik and Elliott, 2013, 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationScientific Freedom and Responsibility
Edsall, J. T. (1975) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.11643270 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
It's Good to Share: Why Environmental Scientists’ Ethics Are Out of Date
Soranno, P. A., Cheruvelil, K. S., Elliott, K. C., & Montgomery, G. M. (2014) · BioScience · doi:10.1093/biosci/biu169 · Cited by 79 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Likewise, value questions arise when deciding whether to conduct classified research on campus because classification imposes restrictions on the sharing of research data and information (Resnik, 2009; Soranno et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationResnik, D. B. (1998) · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationSetting Biomedical Research Priorities: Justice, Science, and Public Participation
Resnik, D. B. (2001) · Kennedy Institute of Ethics journal · doi:10.1353/ken.2001.0017 · Cited by 62 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Agency officials must also decide how to prioritize their research investments among different areas of study (Resnik, 2001, 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBalancing Scientific and Community Interests in Community-Based Participatory Research
Resnik, D. B., & Kennedy, C. E. (2010) · Accountability in Research · doi:10.1080/08989621.2010.493095 · Cited by 62 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Researchers who conduct community-based research have formed community advisory boards to help with study design and recruitment and deal with the potential consequences of publication (Resnik and Kennedy, 2010).”
BackgroundSelf-citationde Melo‐Martín, I., Palmer, L. I., & Fins, J. J. (2007) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0b013e318132f0ee · Cited by 58 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Some institutions offer research ethics consultation services to help scientists deal with ethical questions related to their work (de Melo-Martin et al., 2007).”
BackgroundH5N1 Avian Flu Research and the Ethics of Knowledge
Resnik, D. B. (2013) · The Hastings Center Report · doi:10.1002/hast.143 · Cited by 56 · cited 2× · see citing works
“The journals published the papers shortly after the NSABB made its final recommendation (Resnik, 2013).6 Although most of the public discussion of publication issues has focused on potentially dangerous bioscience research, publication and data sharing issues arise in other areas of science.”
BackgroundSelf-citationOn Being a Scientist: A Guide to Responsible Conduct in Research, 3rd ed.
McCarthy, G. W. (2012) · Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.3357/asem.3383.2012 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Forge, J. (2008) · University of Pittsburgh Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv12pnt8v · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Objectivity and ethics in environmental health science.
Wing, S. (2003) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.6200 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Should we make a fuss? A case for social responsibility in science
Beckwith, J., & Huang, F. W. (2005) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/nbt1205-1479 · Cited by 45 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…to address the social implications of their research (Edsall, 1975; Shrader-Frechette, 1994; Reiser and Bulger, 1997; Kitcher, 2001; Wing, 2002; Beckwith and Huang, 2005; Forge, 2008; Committee and Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, 2009; Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2011; Frankel, 2012;…”
Resnik, D. B. (2009) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195375893.001.0001 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationAn ethics of expertise based on informed consent
Elliott, K. C. (2006) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-006-0062-3 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationGenomic research data: open vs. restricted access.
Resnik, D. B. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationThe responsible scientist: a philosophical inquiry
(2009) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.46-4389 · Cited by 31 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…implications of their research (Edsall, 1975; Shrader-Frechette, 1994; Reiser and Bulger, 1997; Kitcher, 2001; Wing, 2002; Beckwith and Huang, 2005; Forge, 2008; Committee and Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, 2009; Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2011; Frankel, 2012; Børsen et al., 2013; Shamoo…”
A Case Study of Teaching Social Responsibility to Doctoral Students in the Climate Sciences
Børsen, T., Antia, A., & Gleßmer, M. S. (2013) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-013-9485-9 · Cited by 23 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…Beckwith and Huang, 2005; Forge, 2008; Committee and Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, 2009; Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2011; Frankel, 2012; Børsen et al., 2013; Shamoo and Resnik, 2014).1 Many professional codes specifically mention duties related to social responsibility in science…”
BackgroundThe social responsibilities of biological scientists
REISER, S. J., & Bulger, R. E. (1997) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-997-0004-8 · Cited by 18 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…have argued that scientists have a responsibility to address the social implications of their research (Edsall, 1975; Shrader-Frechette, 1994; Reiser and Bulger, 1997; Kitcher, 2001; Wing, 2002; Beckwith and Huang, 2005; Forge, 2008; Committee and Science, Engineering, and Public Policy,…”
BackgroundRegulating the Boundaries of Dual-Use Research
Frankel, M. S. (2012) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1221285 · Cited by 18 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…2001; Wing, 2002; Beckwith and Huang, 2005; Forge, 2008; Committee and Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, 2009; Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2011; Frankel, 2012; Børsen et al., 2013; Shamoo and Resnik, 2014).1 Many professional codes specifically mention duties related to social responsibility…”
BackgroundSociety needs more than wonder to respect science
Watts, S. (2014) · Nature · doi:10.1038/508151a · Cited by 12 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Scientists may also decide to work with public relations officials in deciding how to communicate their research to the public (Watts, 2014).”
BackgroundScientific freedom and responsibility
Edsall, J. T. (1976) · Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry · doi:10.1007/bf01792794 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Hydrogen Fuel‐Cell Vehicles, Energy Policy, and the Ethics of Expertise
Elliott, K. C. (2010) · Journal of Applied Philosophy · doi:10.1111/j.1468-5930.2010.00502.x · Cited by 11 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Deciding to ignore the value implications of one’s research would be irresponsible, because behaving responsibly requires one to deal with the implications of one’s conduct (Douglas, 2009; Elliott, 2010).”
BackgroundSelf-citationTeaching social responsibility: The manhattan project
Gilmer, P. J., & DuBois, M. (2002) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-002-0019-0 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Shrader‐Frechette, K. (2012) · Accountability in Research · doi:10.1080/08989621.2012.700882 · Cited by 8 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Though Needleman was exonerated, he spent a great deal of time and money fighting these allegations (Shrader-Frechette, 2012).”
BackgroundCommentary: What Did the Asilomar Exercise Accomplish, What Did it Leave Undone?
Singer, M. (2001) · Perspectives in biology and medicine · doi:10.1353/pbm.2001.0036 · Cited by 4 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA in 1974 provides an excellent example of a meeting organized by scientists to reflect on the social implications of their research (Singer, 2001).”
BackgroundSome Responsibilities of Science with Relation to Government
Merriam, J. C. (1934) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.80.2087.597 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Some Social Implications of the Scientific Method
MacDaniels, L. H. (1941) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.94.2437.243 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Metaphysics of Scientific Realism
Leplin, J. (2011) · Australasian Journal of Philosophy · doi:10.1080/00048402.2011.560170 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 70 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 9
- American Chemical Society 2012 The Chemical Professional’s Code of Conduct http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/careers/profdev/ethics/the-chemical-professionals-code-of-conduct.html. Accessed 14 July 2014
- American Society for Microbiology 2005 Code of Ethics http://www.asm.org/index.php/governance/code-of-ethics. Accessed 14 July 2014
- Chakravartty A 2010 A Metaphysics for Scientific Realism Cambridge Cambridge University Press
- Joravsky D 1986 The Lysenko Affair Chicago University of Chicago Press
- Kuhn TS 1957 The Copernican Revolution Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press
- Kuhn TS 1977 The Essential Tension Chicago University of Chicago Press
- Latour B Woolgar S 1986 The Social Construction of Facts Princeton, NJ Princeton University Press
- Longino H 1990 Science as Social Knowledge Princeton, NJ Princeton University Press
- Solomon S Qin D Manning M Marquis M Averyt K Tignor M Miller HL Jr Chen Z 2007 Climate Change 2007: The Physical Basis Working Group I Contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Cambridge Cambridge University Press
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Responsible Conduct of Research
Shamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.001.0001 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Self-citationDrolet, M.-J., Rose-Derouin, E., Leblanc, J.-C., Ruest, M., & Williams–Jones, B. (2022) · Journal of Academic Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10805-022-09455-3 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Disclosing and managing non-financial conflicts of interest in scientific publications
Resnik, D. B. (2023) · Research Ethics · doi:10.1177/17470161221148387 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“who exercise this right may face ethical issues related to managing the risk of bias or the perception of bias among their colleagues or the public (Pielke, 2007; Resnik and Elliott, 2016).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGooding, P., & Kariotis, T. (2021) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/24668 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“Our findings suggest that the disciplines undertaking applied research in this field do not generally prioritize explicit consideration of ethical and legal issues in their studies—and, perhaps more broadly, “the moral, political, social and policy issues at stake” [203].”
BackgroundGeneralization Bias in Science
Peters, U., Krauss, A., & Braganza, O. (2022) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.13188 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Froeling, F., Gignac, F., Hoek, G., Vermeulen, R. C. H., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Ficorilli, A., Marchi, B. D., Biggeri, A., Kocman, D., Robinson, J. A., et al. (2021) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2021.106470 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Perkins, D., Danskin, K., Rowe, A. E., & Livinski, A. A. (2018) · Applied Biosafety · doi:10.1177/1535676018778538 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Kubisch, S., Parth, S., Deisenrieder, V., Oberauer, K., Stötter, J., & Keller, L. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13010306 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
CARRIER, M. J. (2019) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-019-02254-1 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Mathematics, ethics and purism: an application of MacIntyre’s virtue theory
Ernest, P. (2020) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-020-02928-1 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
A meta-scientific broad panorama of ethical aspects in the Brazilian IHC
Carvalho, L. P., Suzano, J. A., Santoro, F. M., & Oliveira, J. (2022) · Journal on Interactive Systems · doi:10.5753/jis.2022.2579 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…and scientific procedures (Carvalho et al., 2021a); the costs of hiring interpreters for research that so require, e.g., when involving deaf participants (Sheneman, 2016); or reflecting on the possible positive and negative research impacts, and for whom they will be so (Resnik and Elliott, 2015).”
BackgroundBuilding Better Medicine: Translational Justice and the Quest for Equity in US Healthcare
Allyse, M. A., Agam, P., Bombard, Y., Feys, R., Horstmann, M., Kokayi, A., Isasi, R. M., Meagher, K. M., Michie, M., Musunuru, K., et al. (2025) · The American Journal of Bioethics · doi:10.1080/15265161.2025.2457713 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…(Ruzycki and Ahmed 2022; Venkateswaran et al. 2023); many scientists have argued that their obligation is to “follow the science” with no consideration of broader social implications that might be seen to bias their work (Akkermans 2024; Bird 2014; Resnik and Elliott 2016; Science 2024).”
Brall, C., Maeckelberghe, E. L. M., Porz, R. C., Makhoul, J., & Schröder‐Bäck, P. (2017) · Public Health Genomics · doi:10.1159/000462960 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Confronting ethical and social issues related to the genetics of musicality
Gordon, R. L., Martschenko, D. O., Nayak, S., Niarchou, M., Morrison, M. D., Bell, E., Jacoby, N., & Davis, L. K. (2023) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.14972 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The marginalisation of voice in the fight against climate change: The case of Lusophone Africa
Hunter, N., North, M. A., & Slotow, R. (2021) · Environmental Science & Policy · doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2021.03.012 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Beauchemin, É., Côté, L. P., Drolet, M.-J., & Williams–Jones, B. (2021) · Journal of Academic Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10805-021-09411-7 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The relational responsibilities of scientists: (Re) considering science as a practice
Bezuidenhout, L. M. (2017) · Research Ethics · doi:10.1177/1747016117695368 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Indeed, the habitual enactment of virtuous behavior that is mediated by phronesis is key for scientists to navigate the many dimensions of socially responsible science (Resnik and Elliott, 2016).”
BackgroundChowdhry, A., Kapoor, P., & Popli, D. B. (2020) · Journal of Oral Biology and Craniofacial Research · doi:10.1016/j.jobcr.2020.06.015 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Collaborations with experienced and expert stalwarts in ethics, politics, or public policy have positive implications on final submitted research work for publication.(15) Topics like Biomedical ethics can be easily imbibed at grass root level by these online team work.”
BackgroundRamírez‐Andreotta, M. D., Buxner, S. R., & Sandhaus, S. (2023) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21882 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Science Communication and the Problematic Impact of Descriptive Norms
Peters, U. (2023) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/715001 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Understanding Market Behavior on Corn Commodity: Phenomenon at Year End
Darma, S., Hakim, Y. P., Erwin Kurniawan, A., Darma, D. C., & Suparjo, S. (2022) · Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development · doi:10.55493/5005.v12i2.4434 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“New Year Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development Volume 12, Issue 2 (2022): 53-64. http://www.aessweb.com/journals/5005 celebrations are often in the spotlight for economists and policy makers (such as Resnik & Elliott (2016); Aya (1979)).”
BackgroundSocially responsible science: Exploring the complexities
de Melo‐Martín, I., & Intemann, K. K. (2023) · European Journal for Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1007/s13194-023-00537-6 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“More often, calls for SRS, contend that scientists –and/or institutions– have responsibilities for the products or impacts of their research (Douglas, 2009; Resnik & Elliott, 2016; Shrader‑Frechette, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe ethics of engineered living materials
Ebbesen, M., Korvink, J. G., Islam, M., & Lantada, A. D. (2023) · Trends in biotechnology · doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2023.09.004 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Researchers as brokers: Reflections from a study of migrant physicians in Chile
Lazzaro-Salazar, M. V. (2018) · The Social Science Journal · doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2018.09.006 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“The elephant in the room”: social responsibility in the production of sociogenomics research
Martschenko, D. O. (2021) · BioSocieties · doi:10.1057/s41292-021-00239-3 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“The tensions Olivia draws out speak to several dilemmas in social responsibility: “1) dilemmas related to problem selection, 2) dilemmas related to publication and data sharing, and 3) dilemmas related to engaging society” (Resnik and Elliott 2016, p. 1).”
BackgroundInfluentialA systems perspective on the role mentors play in the cultivation of virtue
Nakamura, J., & Condren, M. (2018) · Journal of Moral Education · doi:10.1080/03057240.2018.1444981 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…that science’s telos also includes the societal impact of the knowledge generated, a point to which we will return; she argues that ‘practicing science with the intent to benefit society is now generally an acceptable goal’ (p. 88), a view supported by Resnik and Elliott (2016) and Bird (2014).”
BackgroundMarc, O., Barret, M., Biancamaria, S., Dassas, K., Firmin, A., Gandois, L., Gheusi, F., Kuppel, S., Maisonobe, M., Mialon, A., et al. (2024) · PLOS Sustainability and Transformation · doi:10.1371/journal.pstr.0000135 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Carvalho, L. P., Suzano, J. A., Pereira, R., Santoro, F. M., & Oliveira, J. (2021) · Brazilian Symposium on Human Factors in Computing Systems (IHC) · doi:10.1145/3472301.3484324 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…Law ( Lei Geral de Proteção de Dados Pessoais - LGPD) and scientific procedures [13]; the costs of hiring interpreters for research that so require, e.g., when involving deaf participants [51]; or reflecting on the possible positive and negative research impacts, and for whom they will be so [45].”
BackgroundAutonomous artificial intelligence, scientific research, and human values
Resnik, D. B., Hosseini, M., & Hauswald, R. (2026) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-025-00908-0 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Even if AI-generated questions do not lead to dangerous research, they might lead us to (immorally) waste valuable financial, computational and material resources on projects with little social or economic benefits [109].”
Self-citationResponsible Science and Research Animal Use
Turner, P. V., & Barbee, R. W. (2019) · ILAR Journal · doi:10.1093/ilar/ilz020 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Zhang, L.-Y., & Sun, H. (2020) · Engineering Construction & Architectural Management · doi:10.1108/ecam-07-2019-0389 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Articulating the social responsibilities of translational science
Smith, E. M. R., Molldrem, S., Farroni, J. S., & Tumilty, E. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-023-02597-8 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Genes do not operate in a vacuum, and neither should our research
Martschenko, D. O., & Smith, M. A. (2021) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-021-00802-5 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Huidu, A. (2020) · Postmodern Openings · doi:10.18662/po/11.1sup2/138 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Even in the case of fake news, one can apply the ethical principle of the researcher responsibility (Resnik & Elliott, 2016), in its dimension of responsibility for disseminating information, both for the information presented in the published paper and for the way in which this information was…”
BackgroundKapitel 21. Bildung und Wissenschaft für ein klimafreundliches Leben
Bohunovsky, L., & Keller, L. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-66497-1_25 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Biology and Feminism: A Philosophical Introduction
Nelson, L. H. (2017) · Thammasat University Digital Collections · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Responsible Research and Innovation in the Context of University Technology Transfer
Gwizdała, J. P., & Śledzik, K. (2017) · Acta Universitatis Lodziensis Folia oeconomica · doi:10.18778/0208-6018.328.04 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Micco, F. D., Palma, G. D., Giacomobono, F., Benedictis, A. D., Cingolani, M., Tambone, V., Tomassini, L., & Scendoni, R. (2025) · Open Medicine · doi:10.1515/med-2025-1153 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“This includes awareness programs, screenings, or support for local healthcare initiatives, as well as adopting sustainable and responsible practices to reduce the environmental impact of laboratory activities [71,72].”
The value-free ideal in codes of conduct for research integrity
Ambrosj, J., Desmond, H., & Dierickx, K. (2023) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-023-04377-y · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…of researchers and the social goals of research as reasons to undermine the VFI (e.g. Bueter, 2015; Drenth, 2006; Kourany, 2010; Lekka-Kowalik, 2010; Resnik & Elliott, 2016), one may view passages like this as de facto deviations from the VFI, and potentially implicit rejections of the VFI.”
BackgroundAmbrosj, J., Dierickx, K., & Desmond, H. (2023) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-022-00427-9 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Science Education: Fit for the Future - Editorial
White, P., & Tytler, R. (2025) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-025-10277-7 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Obeidat, R., & Al‐Delaimy, W. K. (2020) · Journal of Academic Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10805-020-09380-3 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Rajendran, N., Thomas, D., Madhavan, S. S., & Herman, R. A. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-814276-9.00024-6 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Increasing equity in science requires better ethics training: A course by trainees, for trainees
Patel, R. A., Ungar, R. A., Pyke, A. L., Adimoelja, A., Chakraborty, M., Cotter, D. J., Freund, M. K., Goddard, P. C., Gomez‐Stafford, J., Greenwald, E., et al. (2024) · Cell Genomics · doi:10.1016/j.xgen.2024.100554 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…our ‘‘big dream’’ for ethics education: that all biomedical scientists would have the tools to dissect the relationship between science and society, reflect on their own social responsibilities, and identify concrete actions toward a more equitable and socially responsible scien-tific enterprise.”
Ramish, S., & Ehsan, Z. (2024) · ASU International Conference in Emerging Technologies for Sustainability and Intelligent Systems (ICETSIS) · doi:10.1109/icetsis61505.2024.10459426 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“The relationship between CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) and corporate image in times of crisis was examined in a study by [8].”
BackgroundGutmann, B., Ochoa-Madrid, E., & Olmstead, A. (2020) · Physics Education Research Conference (PERC) · doi:10.1119/perc.2020.pr.gutmann · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“As early as the 1600s, Francis Bacon cited the humanitarian goal of science as a tool for “the relief of the human condition” [2], while others cite the perception of science’s purpose as solely the acquisition of knowledge [9, 11].”
BackgroundSo what? Elevating the impact of implementation science
Brownson, R. C., Iwelunmor, J., Odeny, T., Proctor, E. K., & Geng, E. H. (2025) · Implementation Science Communications · doi:10.1186/s43058-025-00831-9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Socially responsive research is essential, yet it also carries risks [36].”
Fehling, P., & Dassen, T. W. N. (2017) · Journal of Nursing · doi:10.7243/2056-9157-4-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The majority of the studies, however, were not aware of the need to consider the ethical aspects of their scientific work [56,57].”
BackgroundYamanaka, M., Suzuki, M., & Sato, K. (2020) · Research Ethics · doi:10.1177/1747016120914331 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“This could be achieved more readily if the hospital or research community were to require attainment of societal consent as a policy (Resnik and Elliott, 2016).”
BackgroundProphetic Leadership: Lessons from the Greatest Leader of Prophet Muhammad
(2023) · FWU Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.51709/19951272/winter2023/7 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
(2022) · Journal of Logistics Informatics and Service Science · doi:10.33168/liss.2022.0322 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Making responsible research and innovation meaningful in citizen science
Tauginienė, L., Butkevičienė, E., Heinisch, B., Massetti, L., Ugolini, F., & Popov, S. (2024) · Science and Public Policy · doi:10.1093/scipol/scae078 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Illescas-Cobos, A. A. (2025) · Revista Kawsaypacha Sociedad y Medio Ambiente · doi:10.18800/kawsaypacha.202501.d001 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Ethical Charge of Articulating Mathematics
Wagner, R. (2023) · Global Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s10516-023-09686-y · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“However, it would be ethically virtuous for such a scientist to be involved in the social monitoring of technologies that might benefit from their work and alert the public to possible negative repercussions of the research in their field (Resnik and Elliott 2016).”
BackgroundAre Farmers Ready to Switch Using Precision Agriculture
(2022) · Journal of System and Management Sciences · doi:10.33168/jsms.2022.0421 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Progressive research collaborations and the limits of soft power
Kits, O., Angus, C., MacLeod, A., & Tummons, J. (2019) · Perspectives on Medical Education · doi:10.1007/s40037-019-0496-3 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Kafaee, M., & Taqavi, M. (2021) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-021-00279-9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“CRISPR for Disabilities: How to Self-Regulate” or Something?
Courtright-Lim, A. (2022) · Journal of Bioethical Inquiry · doi:10.1007/s11673-021-10162-8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Trust and trade: patient perspectives on the ethics of real-world data monetisation
Sagkriotis, A. (2026) · Frontiers in Health Services · doi:10.3389/frhs.2026.1771744 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Reinvestment in public infrastructure, open methods, and digital literacy programmes are therefore not peripheral acts of goodwill but expressions of moral reciprocity (24, 25).”
Artificial intelligence policy among nursing journals
Fu, M. R., Zha, P., Ou, L., Setya, J., Nicoll, L. H., Roberts, M. J., & Spence, J. K. (2026) · Nursing Outlook · doi:10.1016/j.outlook.2026.102803 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Precautionary Principle of Science: Guideline of Ethics in Chemistry
Rivera-Ramírez, J. D. (2020) · Open Journal of Philosophy · doi:10.4236/ojpp.2020.103025 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…2) measurement errors and data emission, 3) damage to public health and the environment, and 4) massive accidents; scientists, technologists and professionals realized the need to establish specific and pragmatic ethical criteria for scientific and professional practice (Resnik & Elliott, 2016).”
BackgroundA Systematic Review of Ethics Knowledge in Audiology Literature: A Follow-Up Study (2011–2020)
Naudé, A., Bornman, J., & Kanji, A. (2022) · American Journal of Audiology · doi:10.1044/2022_aja-22-00043 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Grant, A., Lindsay, N. M., & Benson, H. A. N. (2024) · Regional Environmental Change · doi:10.1007/s10113-024-02293-6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“This is a challenge for science-driven policy when facts are influenced by or influential on values (Resnik and Elliott 2016; Dietz 2013).”
Moral equality and reprogenetic autonomy in the genomic era
Gurcan, O. (2024) · Politics and the Life Sciences · doi:10.1017/pls.2024.12 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Social Responsibility and Health-Related Social Sciences Research
Morrow, B. M., Worku, E. B., & Mathibe-Neke, J. M. (2019) · Research ethics forum · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-15402-8_5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Malinowska, J. K., & Żuradzki, T. (2020) · AJOB Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/21507740.2020.1778126 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“As noted by Resnik and Elliott (2016), dilemmas related to this problem can be grouped into at least three basic categories: “ (i) dilemmas related to problem selection, (ii) dilemmas related to publication and data sharing, and (iii) dilemmas related to engaging society ” (Resnik and Elliott 2016,…”
BackgroundInfluentialKimbrough, C. W., & Pawlik, T. M. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05964-4_7 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Conflicts of Interest and Scientific Objectivity
Shamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.003.0008 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationKappas, I., Promponas, V. J., & Ouzounis, C. A. (2024) · EMBO Reports · doi:10.1038/s44319-023-00039-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…scienti fi c software, this responsibility should primarily rest with the authors and their collaborators; in fact, a mandatory release during or before submission shifts the burden of quality assurance from software developers to reviewers, potential users and consumers (Resnik and Elliott, 2016).”
Tang, B. L. (2025) · Accountability in Research · doi:10.1080/08989621.2025.2479494 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Furthermore, “ . . . scientists have obligations to society because they have benefitted, directly or indirectly, from government support of their education and research” (Resnik and Elliott 2016, 36).”
Corporate Social Responsibility and Science Social Responsibility – In Search of Analogy
Żemigała, M. (2020) · Studia i Materiały Wydziału Zarządzania UW · doi:10.7172/1733-9758.2020.32.9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Shamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.003.0006 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationShamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.003.0002 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationEvaluative Language in Scientific Discourse:Terminological Framework and Methodological Perspectives
Chernyavskaya, V. E. (2022) · Вестник Пермского университета. Российская и зарубежная филология · doi:10.17072/2073-6681-2022-3-44-55 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ali, M. I. (2023) · Journal of Legal Studies · doi:10.2478/jles-2023-0014 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Biomedical research as collateral damage in a new world Order?
Fender, A. C., & Hinney, A. (2025) · IJC Heart & Vasculature · doi:10.1016/j.ijcha.2025.101633 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“One important role of science is as a beacon of understanding and enlightenment to advance society, with the mission to credibly and responsibly disseminate scientific findings and the implications these might have for public health and society as a whole [8,9].”
From a variety of ethics to the integrity and congruence of research on biodiversity conservation
Lajaunie, C. (2018) · Asian Bioethics Review · doi:10.1007/s41649-018-0072-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Aguiar, S. (2019) · Em Questão · doi:10.19132/1808-5245261.84-112 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Profesores universitarios y responsabilidad social de la ciencia
Adler, A. H. (2020) · Ciencia y Educación · doi:10.22206/cyed.2020.v4i2.pp103-114 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Precautionary Reasoning and the Precautionary Principle
Resnik, D. B. (2021) · The International Library of Bioethics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-70791-0_5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationCollaboration within Academia and with Industry
Shamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.003.0004 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationHealth under austerity in Europe
Brall (2018) · doi:10.26481/dis.20180709cb · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Conclusion: Scientific Policy Advice and Ethical Judgment
Tholen, B. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-65253-5_11
Applicability of Traditional Environmental Criminological Theories in Developing Country Contexts
Ojo, A., & Ojewale, O. S. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19765-0_4
Boichenko, M., Boichenko, N. M., & Shevchenko, Z. (2020) · SCIENTIA FRUCTUOSA · doi:10.31617/visnik.knute.2020(129)07
Precautionary Reasoning and Decision Theory
Resnik, D. B. (2021) · The International Library of Bioethics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-70791-0_2
Self-citationReframing manufacturing research: place, production, risk and theory
Bryson, J. R., Billing, C. A., Graves, W. W., & Yeung, G. K.-Y. (2022) · Edward Elgar Publishing eBooks · doi:10.4337/9781789908510.00010
Ciudadanía democrática y ethos científico: una perspectiva pragmatista
Rivero, J. C. M. (2022) · Daímon · doi:10.6018/daimon.398791
The Use of Animals in Research
Shamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.003.0010
Self-citationScientific Research and Ethics
Shamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.003.0001
Self-citationShamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.003.0005
Self-citationData Acquisition and Management
Shamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.003.0003
Self-citationShamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.003.0013
Self-citationMentoring and the Research Environment
Shamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.003.0009
Self-citationThe Protection of Human Subjects in Research
Shamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.003.0011
Self-citationShamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.003.0007
Self-citationScience and Social Responsibility
Shamoo, A. E., & Resnik, D. B. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197547090.003.0012
Self-citationNon-cognitive Values: A Warrant of the Rationality and Responsibility of Science
Lekka-Kowalik, A. (2022) · Ruch Filozoficzny · doi:10.12775/rf.2021.041
When mentors hide information from mentees: An exploratory proposal
Tinoco-Giraldo, H. (2022) · International Conference on Virtual Campus (JICV) · doi:10.1109/jicv56113.2022.9934789
“If there is intent, then it is highly likely that the behavior will be performed [24].”
Background
- Authors
- Resnik, D. B., & Elliott, K. C.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Michigan State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Resnik, David B.
- Venue
- Accountability in Research
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2015-07-20
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 31-46
- ISSN
- 0898-9621 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-5815
- PMC
- PMC4631672
- OpenAlex
- W2124882912
- Cited by
- 131
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 6
- FWCI
- 10.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Accountability in Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- University of Wisconsin-Madison
- National Institutes of Health (Z99-ES999999)
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (ZIAES102646)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Education, Technology, and Ethics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Research, Science, and Academia
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Academic integrity and plagiarism
- Keywords
- social responsibility of scientists, responsible conduct of research, research ethics, ethical dilemmas, problem selection, publication ethics, data sharing, citizen participation, objectivity, professional commitment
- MeSH terms
- Ethics, Professional, Humans, Morals, Politics, Science, Social Responsibility, Ethics, Research
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
