The DOI matches its Crossref record; 69 of the 69 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 8 of the 45 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review
Open accessAbstract
Several influential reviews and two meta-reviews have converged on the position that teacher professional development (PD) is more effective when it is sustained, collaborative, subject specific, draws on external expertise, has buy-in from teachers, and is practice based. This consensus view has now been incorporated in government policy and official guidance in several countries. This paper reassesses the evidence underpinning the consensus, arguing that the reviews on which it is based have important methodological weaknesses, in that they employ inappropriate inclusion criteria and depend on an invalid inference method. The consensus view is therefore likely to be inaccurate. It is argued that researchers would make more progress identifying characteristics of effective professional development by looking for alignment between evidence from basic research on human skill acquisition and features of rigorously evaluated PD interventions.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This critical review argues that the influential consensus on effective teacher professional development—sustained, collaborative, subject-specific, externally led, buy-in, practice-based—is not warranted by the reviews underpinning it. The authors contend that those reviews use inappropriate inclusion criteria and an invalid inference method, and propose combining causal evidence with evidence of mechanism to identify genuinely active PD characteristics.
Key findings
- The consensus view claims PD is more effective when it is sustained, collaborative, subject-specific, draws on external expertise, has teacher buy-in, and is practice-based; this view has influenced policy in the UK, EU, and US.
- The authors identify methodological weaknesses in the underpinning reviews: Timperley et al. (2007), the highest-rated review in Cordingley et al. (2015), included studies that mostly could not establish baseline equivalence; by What Works Clearinghouse standards, nine of the ten studies mentioned would be graded “Does Not Meet Evidence Screens,” and the randomised study would likely be disqualified due to high attrition.
- The inference method is flawed because recurring features in effective interventions may be causally redundant; for example, collaboration may occur because it is cheaper, and buy-in may result from noticing impact rather than cause it.
- The claim that PD should be sustained may require revision: moderator analyses from two meta-analyses found that among interventions including repeated practice of specific skills, overall programme duration showed no relationship with impact on pupil attainment (Basma & Savage, 2017; Kraft et al., 2018).
- Instructional coaching is used as an illustrative case: a meta-analysis identified 44 evaluations with an average impact on pupil learning of 0.15 standard deviations (Kraft et al., 2018), and the authors argue repeated practice in the target environment is a plausible mechanism.
Methods
- Methodological review using ancestry searching: traced backwards from policy documents to meta-reviews, reviews, and original studies cited in support of the consensus, supplemented by searches using terms such as “teacher,” “professional development,” “characteristics of,” and “features of.”
- The review focused exclusively on studies using pupil achievement as an outcome measure, justified by Guskey’s argument that PD research must focus on improvements in student learning outcomes.
- Analysis critically examined inclusion criteria and inference methods in the consensus literature, then proposed an alternative approach combining evidence of correlation with evidence of mechanism, illustrated with instructional coaching.
Limitations
- The paper states it focused solely on studies using student attainment as the criterion for effective PD, so an approach using intermediate, non-attainment outcomes could have reached different conclusions.
- It states most discussed studies focus on English and maths attainment, reflecting the literature, and broader evidence in humanities and creative subjects might allow more nuanced conclusions.
- It states the discussion focused exclusively on the evidence base underpinning the consensus view, so readers seeking a representative picture should consult other studies; the instructional coaching example is illustrative, not definitive.
- Evident from the text: as a methodological review, it did not require exhaustive searches, so it does not claim to be a comprehensive aggregative review.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
31 Own interpretation · 11 No basis given · 10 No full text of the sources · 7 Sources not found · 6 Not checked yet · 5 Partly supported · 3 Own method · 2 Supported · 1 Own result · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Evidence of (causal) correlation between a PD intervention and pupil outcomes provides evidence that an intervention as a whole is effective.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.1 Philosophical basis
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Clarke et al., 2014 source
Section 2.6.4 says evidence of correlation helps assess the net effect of a complex mechanism, supporting the claim that outcome evidence bears on an intervention’s overall effectiveness. The paper makes this as a general methodological point, not as a finding about professional development or pupil outcomes; it also says evidence of mechanisms helps establish whether the relationship is genuinely causal. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Neuroscientists have also shown how behaviours which are repeated many times become governed by different regions of the brain, making them more resistant to change (Seger & Spiering, 2011).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Seger & Spiering, 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The review links continued practice to changes in basal-ganglia activity (Slow or incremental) and associates habitual action with different neural circuits and reduced flexibility (Conclusion; Inflexible). But the Conclusion presents a transfer of behavioral control across brain systems as one proposed account, not a demonstrated outcome for behaviours generally. The claim overstates how firmly the review establishes that repetition causes such a shift. (LLM, conf=0.82)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Russo and Williamson (2007) and Clarke et al. (2014) have revived the arguments of Bradford Hill (1965) and Mackie (1974) to show how this can be done.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.1 Philosophical basis
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Russo and Williamson (2007) source
- Partly supportedcites Clarke et al. (2014) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 2.2 says that establishing a causal claim in medicine normally requires evidence of correlation and of an underlying mechanism. The discussion of medical methodology connects Bradford Hill’s criteria to that balance. Our copy does not show Clarke et al. drawing on Mackie (1974) or explaining how to identify causally non-redundant characteristics; §2.2 also distinguishes evidence of two sorts of things from two different kinds of evidence. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bradford Hill (1965) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“By What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) standards, nine of the ten studies mentioned above would be graded 'Does Not Meet Evidence Screens' because they do not establish baseline equivalence of treatment and control groups.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.1 Appropriateness of inclusion criteria
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Timperley et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We do not claim here that collaboration or buy-in are undesirable features of PD; only that -contra to the consensus viewcompelling evidence of their contribution is currently lacking.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.2 Validity of inference methods
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All four of the consensus-view, cross-subject reviews that conducted step 4 of the review process (Desimone 2009;Timperley et al., 2007;Walter & Briggs, 2012;Wei et al., 2009) used a thematic approach to identify the characteristics of effective PD, seeking to identify features that recurred among interventions that were found to be effective.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.2 Validity of inference methods
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Desimone 2009 source
- Not matchedcites Timperley et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Walter & Briggs, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An important limitation of the existing evidence is that many of the studies focus on literacy outcomes and are targeted at younger pupils.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relatedly, most of the studies we have discussed focus on English and maths attainment.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6.1 Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The selection criteria employed by a literature review affect its conclusions (McDonagh et al., 2013) for at least two reasons.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.1 Appropriateness of inclusion criteria
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McDonagh et al., 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This consensus view has now been incorporated in government policy and official guidance in several countries.”
- Also stated in: § 2. Background and motivation · plain
“Indeed, the consensus view has become embedded in official guidance in the UK (DfE, 2016), the EU (Caena, 2011) and the US (see Desimone, 2009).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites DfE, 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Caena, 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Desimone, 2009 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § 2. Background and motivation · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Interestingly, several recent evaluations of PD interventions which include all of the consensus view characteristics have not found a positive a positive impact.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 2. Background and motivation
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Garet et al., 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Garet et al., 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jacob, Hill, & Corey, 2017 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, we argue that recent studies using more rigorous inclusion criteria are still likely to lead to erroneous conclusions because they cannot distinguishing the active ingredients of rigorously evaluated interventions from the causally redundant components.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 1. Introduction
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The consensus view is therefore likely to be inaccurate.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > Abstract
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Indeed, research has shown that certain teaching practices becomes more habitual over the early years of teachers careers (Sims, Hobbiss, & Allen, In Press).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Sims, Hobbiss, & Allen, In Press
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“The risk is that, in the terminology of Mackie (1974), effective interventions include causally redundant components.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.2 Validity of inference methods
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Mackie (1974)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“Research in a very wide range of settingscar use, recycling, blood donation, votinghas shown that people maintain these habitual behaviours, even if their goals change (Wood & Neal, 2007).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood & Neal, 2007 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis required studies to employ either difference-indifference, regression discontinuity or randomised controlled trial designs.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kraft et al., 2018 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The overall inference method described in the preceding paragraph is logically flawed.The regular occurrence of specific features of PD in effective interventions does not, in itself, warrant any inference about the effect of that feature of the intervention.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.2 Validity of inference methods
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When both types of evidence converge however, can we be more confident that a non-redundant characteristic of a collectively sufficient causal condition has been identified.”
- Also stated in: § 5.1 Philosophical basis · boosted
“if we found a PD intervention incorporating characteristic X, which had been shown to be effective and there was evidence that X is effective in bringing about learning or behaviour change in a range of settings, there is far stronger evidential warrant that X is genuinely characteristic of effective PD.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.1 Philosophical basis
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § 5.1 Philosophical basis · boosted
In the paper
“Indeed, a recent meta-analysis identified 44 evaluations of instructional coaching programmes, with an average impact on pupil learning of 0.15 standard deviations (Kraft et al., 2018).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kraft et al., 2018 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In seeking to identify characteristics of effective PD, included studies must identify which PD interventions are effective in raising and attainment and which are not.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.1 Appropriateness of inclusion criteria
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“PD programmes often fail to bring about intended changes in teacher practice (Copur-Gencturk & Papakonstantinou, 2016)”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Copur-Gencturk & Papakonstantinou, 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“meta-analysis of causal studies in a range of settings suggests that habits -behaviours cued automatically by environmental stimuli -are the most important reason that people fail to change their actions in this way (Webb & Sheeran, 2006).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Webb & Sheeran, 2006 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“PD interventions based on instructional coachingan observation, feedback, practice cycle in which an individual teachers received guidance from an expert mentor -show consistently positive correlations with pupil achievement.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kraft et al., 2018 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, taken together, this research provides good evidence of (causal) evidence-of-correlation between instructional coaching and pupil achievement.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“This is because repetition in the presence of specific environmental cues causes behaviour to become automatic (Lally, van Jaarsveld, Potts, & Wardle, 2009).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lally, van Jaarsveld, Potts, & Wardle, 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, If a PD programme with a collaborative component affects pupil attainment, this does not demonstrate that collaboration played a causal role; an adapted version of the intervention might have been just as effective if teachers had worked”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.1 Philosophical basis
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even if it were the case these reviews had employed appropriate inclusion criteria, it is unclear that the inferences in step 4 of the process would yield accurate conclusions about the characteristics of effective PD.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.2 Validity of inference methods
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Put another way, consensus view characteristics could occur frequently in effective PD interventions for reasons other than their contribution to the effectiveness of that PD.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.2 Validity of inference methods
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, correlational evidence alone cannot distinguish causally redundant from causally non-redundant characteristics of interventions.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.1 Philosophical basis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Some parts of the consensus view, such as collaboration, currently lack evidential warrant.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our study illustrates how, absent this level of scrutiny, reviews of reviews can lead to the propagation of weakly warranted findings through the hierarchy of reviews and onward into public policy, practice and research.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this article, we have argued that the underpinning research does not support this consensus because it employs inappropriate inclusion criteria and a flawed inference method.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Moderator analysis from two meta-analyses show that, among interventions which include repeated practice of specific skills, the overall duration (length of time) of the PD programme shows no relationship with the impact on pupil attainment (Basma & Savage, 2017;Kraft et al., 2018).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Basma & Savage, 2017
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kraft et al., 2018 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This evidence of mechanism for repeating a new technique in the target environment to help ingrain new practices -combined with evidence of correlation between coaching and pupil attainment -suggests that this type of practice is a characteristic of effective PD.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“this approach is problematic because the quality of the preceding reviews cannot be fully assessed without a detailed investigating of the underpinning primary research -of the sort we reported in section 4.1.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Moreover, metaanalysis suggests that repeatedly practicing the new techniques in the environment where you aim to reproduce them in future (i.e. the classroom) helps replace old habits by overwriting the established cue-response relationships (Webb & Sheeran, 2006).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Webb & Sheeran, 2006 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The repeated review and feedback incorporated in coaching models helps strengthen these new cue-response relationships even further.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Experimental and observational research in a range of contexts, as well as evidence from neuroscientific research, shows that it is necessary to repeatedly practice new behaviours before they become automatic (see Wood and Neal, 2007).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood and Neal, 2007 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Ironically, this obviates the time/cost benefits of conducting rapid meta-reviews in the first place (Caird et al., 2015;Whitlock et al., 2008).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“any apparent similarity between the features of instructional coaching and the consensus view is not, in and of itself, evidence that consensus view is correct.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6.2 Implications
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Crucially, it is the combination of evidence of correlation and evidence of mechanism which makes the evidential warrant for repeated practice more compelling than that for PD being sustained.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In line with this, evidence reviewed in section 5 suggests that it may be repeated practice that matters, rather than PD being sustained.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the range of methods by which, and contexts in which, habits have been shown to influence behaviour suggests that they constitute an important potential mechanism in changing teachers practice.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The claim that PD should be sustained may require revision.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this article, we have argued that the underpinning research does not support this consensus because it employs inappropriate inclusion criteria and a flawed inference method.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Certainly, the (meta) reviews on which this claim is often based have not established this.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this article, we have argued that the underpinning research does not support this consensus because it employs inappropriate inclusion criteria and a flawed inference method.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“More generally, we conclude that there are reasons to be sceptical about the methods employed by researchers in developing the consensus view.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 14
- It may state two separate claims as one. 16
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Clarke et al. (2014, p. 19) argue that these two types of evidence”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.1 Philosophical basis
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Clarke et al. (2014) source
Section 2.6.4 says evidence of mechanisms and evidence of correlation “do not act independently” but “integrate in a special way.” It explains how each addresses limitations of the other and concludes that together they are much stronger than either alone, supporting the paraphrase. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The empirical evidence for instructional coaching also includes replicated randomised controlled trials (Allen et al., 2011;Allen et al., 2015) and evidence from AB testing (Albornoz et al., 2017).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Allen et al., 2011 source
The paper describes its evaluation of the coaching-based My Teaching Partner–Secondary program as a randomized controlled trial (passages 1 and 3). Allen et al. (2011) therefore supports the randomized-trial part of the citing sentence. The separate citation to Albornoz et al. is attached to the AB-testing claim. (LLM, conf=0.89)
- Supportedcites Allen et al., 2015 source
The paper describes its study as a randomized controlled trial serving a replication function (introduction; page unavailable). Its Methods section says teachers were randomly assigned to MTP-S coaching or a control group. The separate AB-testing claim is attributed to Albornoz et al. (2017), not to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Not matchedcites Albornoz et al., 2017
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“teachers enrolled in the My Teaching Partner programme submit fortnightly videos of themselves practising specific skills in their own lessons, which they then review along with their coach (Allen et al., 2011).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Allen et al., 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The intervention description (section labeled Abstract; page unavailable) says teachers submitted videos of their lessons, reviewed selected clips, and discussed them with a consultant in a cycle repeated about twice a month. It does not say they filmed themselves deliberately practising specific skills; consultants selected clips illustrating interactions or areas for growth. (LLM, conf=0.84)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Coaching incorporates characteristics which are known to promote habit change.”
- Also stated in: § 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching · plain
“Most notably, coaching programmes require teachers to repeatedly practice new skills in their own classrooms.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Allen et al., 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The intervention description (section labeled Abstract; no page supplied) says teachers repeatedly recorded classroom lessons, reviewed their interactions with a coach, and discussed ways to improve them. The paper also reports enduring changes in teaching. It does not establish that these coaching features are known to promote habit change or explicitly require repeated practice of new skills. (LLM, conf=0.82)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This paper reassesses the evidence underpinning the consensus, arguing that the reviews on which it is based have important methodological weaknesses, in that they employ inappropriate inclusion criteria and depend on an invalid inference method.”
- Also stated in: § 4.1 Appropriateness of inclusion criteria · plain
“Thus, the most highly-rated review in Cordingley et al. (2015) uses weak inclusion criteria which admit studies employing designs unable to establish whether the PD interventions were effective or not.”
- Also stated in: § 4.2 Validity of inference methods · plain
“The overall inference method described in the preceding paragraph is logically flawed.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § 4.1 Appropriateness of inclusion criteria · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our literature review revealed that the review articles underpinning the consensus view follow a set of common steps:”
- Also stated in: § 4. Results · plain
“(4) They have looked for characteristics of PD which are (in some way) related to the effectiveness of the evaluated PD interventions.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4. Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § 4. Results · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In summary, many of the reviews which espoused the consensus view did not employ appropriate inclusion criteria; while those that did employ appropriate inclusion criteria tended not to endorse the consensus view.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.1 Appropriateness of inclusion criteria
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Thus, the most highly-rated review in Cordingley et al. (2015) uses weak inclusion criteria which admit studies employing designs unable to establish whether the PD interventions were effective or not.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.1 Appropriateness of inclusion criteria
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cordingley et al., 2015
- Not matchedcites Timperley et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“The randomised study may qualify for WWC 'Meets Evidence Standards Without Reservation' but the high rate of attrition (missing follow up data) means it would likely be disqualified altogether, because where attrition is correlated with treatment assignment, this undermines the baseline equivalence originally established by the randomisation (Shadish, Cook & Campbell, 2002).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.1 Appropriateness of inclusion criteria
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Shadish, Cook & Campbell, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there are a lack of studies in similar public service settings, such as among doctors or police.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is argued that researchers would make more progress identifying characteristics of effective professional development by looking for alignment between evidence from basic research on human skill acquisition and features of rigorouslyevaluated PD interventions.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > Abstract
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: Evidence of mechanism from basic research on human motivation or learning holds across diverse contexts.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Several influential reviews and two meta-reviews have converged on the position that teacher professional development (PD) is more effective when it is: sustained, collaborative, subject-specific, draws on external expertise, has buy-in from teachers and is practice-based.”
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · hedged
“More recently, however, several reviews have converged on the position that PD is more likely to improve pupil attainment if it is sustained, collaborative, has teacher buyin, is subject-specific, draws on external expertise and is practice-based (Desimone, 2009;Timperley, Wilson, Barrar, & Fung, 2007;Walter, 2012;Wei et al., 2009).”
- Also stated in: § 2. Background and motivation · plain
“Several different literature reviews concur that PD is more effective if it incorporates six characteristics, which they conceptualise as necessary or sufficient conditions (e.g.Cordingley et al., 2015), critical features (e.g.Desimone, 2009), or simply as being important (e.g.Timperley et al., 2007).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Desimone, 2009 source
- Not matchedcites Timperley et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cordingley et al., 2015
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · hedged
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since these characteristics will always come as part of a package, a different research approach may be needed.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.1 Philosophical basis
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Characteristics of effective professional development always come bundled together in interventions, so individual characteristics cannot be isolated by simple correlation.
In the paper
“Such designs are able to account for differences between the treatment and control groups that are not recorded in the data, which enables them to credibly identify the causal impact of the coaching programmes on pupil learning (Rosenbaum, 2017).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rosenbaum, 2017 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, evidence of mechanism can help identify nonredundant components of a cause, but cannot determine whether a component will have a causal effect when implemented as part of an intervention.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.1 Philosophical basis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The findings of the review will therefore be compromised if the studies included are incomplete or the methods employed in the studies are inappropriate for answering the questions.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.1 Appropriateness of inclusion criteria
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“our research highlights the dangers involved in meta-reviews (or reviews of reviews) which are often employed to summarise the evidence from a field in a short space of time, in order to inform policy (Thomas, Newman, & Oliver, 2013).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Thomas, Newman, & Oliver, 2013 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a sustained PD programme might provide fortnightly sessions for two years, but if each part of the curriculum is covered only once, then the intervention does not incorporate repeated practice and is less likely to change teachers' practise.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again, existing research does not warrant these claims: there is currently an absence of evidence.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Several reviews and two meta-reviews have established a consensus around the characteristics of effective PD.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we cannot rule out that an alternative approach that used intermediate, non-attainment outcomes could have come to differing conclusions.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6.1 Limitations
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the US, the Every Student Succeeds Act currently requires PD to be both sustained and collaborative in order to qualify for federal funding.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6.2 Implications
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In England, the Standards for Teachers' Professional Development also recommend that PD should be collaborative.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6.2 Implications
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One such limitation is that this paper has focused solely on studies using student attainment as a criterion for effective PD.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6.1 Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Rests on an assumption: Student attainment is an appropriate criterion for judging the effectiveness of teacher professional development.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a broader evidence base on effective PD in the humanities and creative subjects might allow a more nuanced set of conclusions to be reached.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6.1 Limitations
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even if they had identified effective interventions, collaboration may be causally redundant, rather than an active ingredient.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Inappropriate inclusion criteria mean these reviews likely do not identify effective PD interventions, let alone their common characteristics.”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 6. Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Characteristics of effective professional development always come bundled together in interventions, so individual characteristics cannot be isolated by simple correlation.
“Since these characteristics will always come as part of a package, a different research approach may be needed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Evidence of mechanism from basic research on human motivation or learning holds across diverse contexts.
“In social science, evidence of mechanism might come from basic research describing fundamental characteristics of human motivation or learning, which hold across diverse contexts (see section 5.2 for an example).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Student attainment is an appropriate criterion for judging the effectiveness of teacher professional development.
“One such limitation is that this paper has focused solely on studies using student attainment as a criterion for effective PD.While we believe this to be justified, we cannot rule out that an alternative approach that used intermediate, non-attainment outcomes could have come to differing conclusions.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, rigorous evidence to support effective PD design and delivery remains scarce (Sims & Fletcher-Wood, 2021;Yoon et al., 2007).”
From Teacher Professional Development and Student Mathematics Achievement: A Meta-Analysis of the Effects and Moderators (2025) · cites this paper as Sims & Fletcher-Wood, 2021
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“PD can play a key role in improving teacher quality and effective delivery of instruction (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017;Koellner et al., 2024;Sims & Fletcher-Wood, 2021)”
From Teacher Professional Development and Student Mathematics Achievement: A Meta-Analysis of the Effects and Moderators (2025) · cites this paper as Sims & Fletcher-Wood, 2021
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 5.2 Illustrative example: Instructional coaching
“(Sims, Hobbiss, & Allen, In Press)”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > References
“Sims, S., Hobbiss, M., & Allen, B. (Under Review). Habit formation limits growth in teacher effectiveness: A review of converging evidence from neuroscience and social science.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 2. Background and motivation
“(e.g.Greenleaf et al., 2010;Penuel, Gallagher, & Moorthy, 2011)”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > References
“Greenleaf, C. L., Litman, C., Hanson, T. L., Rosen, R., Boscardin, C. K., Herman, J., Jones, B. (2011). Integrating literacy and science in biology: Teaching and learning impacts of Reading Apprenticeship professional development.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.1 Appropriateness of inclusion criteria
“Table 10.2 in Timperley et al. (2007) lists eleven studies relevant to the characteristics of effective PD in secondary schools that were rated highly enough to be included (there is no equivalent section for primary schools).”
§ Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: a critical review > 4.1 Appropriateness of inclusion criteria
“• Bishop, Berryman, Powell and Teddy (2005), Confrey, Castro-Filho andWilhelm (2000) andD'Oria (2004) employed no control variables at all, relying instead on unadjusted comparisons of outcomes.”
Citations
Cites
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: the PRISMA statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & for the PRISMA Group (2009) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.b2535 · Cited by 83,823
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & The PRISMA Group (2009) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097 · Cited by 64,042
A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies
Grant, M. J., & Booth, A. (2009) · Health Information & Libraries Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x · Cited by 10,817
The environment and disease: association or causation?
Hill, A. B. (2015) · Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine · doi:10.1177/0141076814562718 · Cited by 7,804
Michie, S., Richardson, M., Johnston, M., Abraham, C., Francis, J., Hardeman, W., Eccles, M. P., Cane, J., & Wood, C. E. (2013) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-013-9486-6 · Cited by 7,629
The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation?
Hill, A. B. (1965) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine · doi:10.1177/003591576505800503 · Cited by 6,974
Desimone, L. M. (2009) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x08331140 · Cited by 4,862
Effective Teacher Professional Development
Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M., & Gardner, M. (2017) · Learning Policy Institute · doi:10.54300/122.311 · Cited by 4,264
Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.249 · Cited by 3,732
Professional Development and Teacher Change
Guskey, T. R. (2002) · Teachers and Teaching · doi:10.1080/135406002100000512 · Cited by 3,403
Research works printed but not linked: 16
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- Bishop R., 2005, Te Kotahitanga: Improving the educational achievement of Maori students in mainstream education
- Blank R. K., 2009, Effects of teacher professional development on gains in student achievement: How meta analysis provides scientific evidence useful to education leaders
- Caena F., 2011, Literature review: teachers’ core competences: requirements and development
- Combs E., 2016, Bridging the gap: Paving the pathway from current practice to exemplary professional learning
- Department for Education, 2016, Standard for teachers’ professional development: Implementation guidance for school leaders, teachers, and organisations that offer professional development for teachers
- D’Oria T., 2004, How I improved my teaching practice in Grade 9 boys’ physical education to increase students’ participation and enjoyment
- Garet M. S., 2011, Middle School Mathematics Professional Development Impact Study: Findings after the second year of implementation
- Huffman D., 2003, Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 22, 151
- McDonagh M., 2013, Avoiding bias in selecting studies. Methods guide for effectiveness and comparative effectiveness reviews
- Moxon J., 2003, A study of the impact of the Restorative Thinking Programme within the context of a large multi-cultural New Zealand secondary school
- Nugent G., 2016, The effectiveness of technology-delivered science instructional coaching in middle and high school
- Sims S., Review of Education
- Tasker G., 2001, Students’ experience in an HIV/AIDS-sexuality education programme: What they learnt and the implications for teaching and learning in health education
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Hennessy, S., D'Angelo, S., McIntyre, N., Koomar, S., Kreimeia, A., Cao, L., Brugha, M., & Zubairi, A. (2022) · Computers and Education Open · doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2022.100080 · Cited by 327
Effective Teacher Professional Development: New Theory and a Meta-Analytic Test
Sims, S., Fletcher-Wood, H., O’Mara-Eves, A., Cottingham, S., Stansfield, C., Goodrich, J., Herwegen, J. V., & Anders, J. (2023) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543231217480 · Cited by 383
Self-citationLangelaan, B. N., Gaikhorst, L., Smets, W., et al. (2024) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2023.104464 · Cited by 112
Donath, J. L., Lüke, T., Graf, E., Tran, U. S., & Götz, T. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09752-2 · Cited by 266
Asterhan, C. S. C., & Lefstein, A. (2023) · Professional Development in Education · doi:10.1080/19415257.2023.2283437 · Cited by 81
Metadata
- Authors
- Sims, S., & Fletcher-Wood, H.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- Ambition Institute, London, UK
- Corresponding author
- Sims, Sam
- Venue
- School Effectiveness and School Improvement
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2020-05-28
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 47-63
- ISSN
- 0924-3453 (ISSN-L)
- 1744-5124
- OpenAlex
- W3030756526
- Cited by
- 582
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 161 · 2025: 148 · 2024: 119 · 2023: 87 · 2022: 39 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 5
- FWCI
- 49.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- discovery.ucl.ac.uk
- Locations
- School Effectiveness and School Improvement (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Teacher Education and Leadership Studies
- Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Assessment and Improvement
- Keywords
- teacher professional development, professional development effectiveness, sustained professional development, collaborative professional learning, external expertise, teacher buy-in, practice-based professional development, inclusion criteria, skill acquisition, teacher education policy
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-08, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-08 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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