Preparing language teachers to teach language online: a look at skills, roles, and responsibilities

“In the specific area of language teaching some researchers have worked to identify the particular skills that online language teachers require (Hampel & Stickler, 2005; Shelley, White, Baumann & Murphy, 2006; Compton, 2009), and other work has focused on teachers’ own experiences and perspectives on their readiness an…”

“MALL literature suggests that, in addition to providing self-monitoring and self-88 management features, MALL should enable collaborative forms of language learning (Kim & Kwon, 2012) that provide a ‘ sense of community ’ (Compton, 2009).”

“…attention has been given to the challenges of sector-specific online teacher preparation, including teaching areas such as music (Hebert, 2007), early childhood (Heirdsfield, Davis, Lennox, Walker, & Zhang, 2007), science (Nicholas & Ng, 2009), mathematics (Li, 2003), and literacy (Compton, 2009).”

“…White, Baumann, & Murphy, 2006; Stickler & Shi, 2013; White, 2003), and proposing new pedagogic approaches and frameworks (see, e.g., Ally, 2004; Chateau & Zumbihl, 2012; Comas-Quinn, de los Arcos, & Mardomingo, 2012; Compton, 2009; Hampel & Stickler, 2005; Wang & Chen, 2013), just to name a few.”

“For example, a “sense of community” is critical to the success of any online learner (Liu, Magjuka, Bonk, & Lee, 2007; Sadera, Robertson, Song, & Midon, 2009; Rovai, 2002), and especially foreign language learners, who require an online community not only to engage them in learning but also to foster the second langua…”

“Recently, there have been many studies that explore the potential of CMC to facilitate second language acquisition and develop cultural awareness in the study of English as a second or foreign language (Fiori, 2005; Heift, 2010; Ho, 2000, 2009; Merryfield, 2003; O’Dowd, 2001, 2005; Wach, 2012).”

“…programs were individual courses designed to introduce the participants to the concepts behind online learning (Bose, 2013; Compton & Davis, 2010; Compton et al., 2009; Dabner et al., 2012; Duncan & Barnett, 2009), while other programs were courses specifically designed to instruct potential…”

“With regard to teacher-level factors, Compton (2009) developed a framework for online language teaching that encompasses three domains, namely technology (which refers to teachers’ knowledge and ability to handle hardware and software issues), pedagogy (which refers to teachers’ knowledge and…”

“…of trust and friendship is essential for language learning, and these can be more challenging for the teacher to promote online (Baralt et al., 2016; Compton, 2009; Gleason, 2013; Hampel & Stickler, 2005; Stickler & Shi, 2015); (d) learners may feel more self-conscious in video-based interaction…”

“Although scholars have proposed frameworks to delineate the skills needed to teach languages online (e.g. Compton, 2009; Hampel and Stickler, 2005; Stickler et al., 2020), a more nuanced understanding is needed of the competence teachers require to perform various aspects of their role, at…”

“Teachers should be able to assist learners with technological problems in digital learning (Compton, 2009).”

“…and second language acquisition theories for instructors to learn online pedagogies (Cutrim-Schmid, 2010; Guichon, 2009; Hampel, 2006; Peters, 2006), as well as those studies that indicate the importance of acquiring different skillsets and competencies (Compton, 2009; Hampel & Stickler, 2005).”

“This result validates the research fi nding that with students ’ own positive CALL experience using technology, student teachers could acquire positive perspectives about new technology and eventually achieve long-term habits of adopting innovative methods of CALL (Compton, 2009; Masood, 2010).”

“In her critique of Hampel and Stickler’s (2005) framework, Compton (2009) points out that skills can be developed concurrently rather than sequentially and that the model fails to indicate when online teachers are ready to teach.”

“And students tended to feel more connected and closer with their peers and teachers through online discussion (Compton, 2009, p. 91).”

“’ ( Compton, 2009, p. 95).”

“…research and best practices in the domain of online language learning, references that explicate the preparation of language educators for online instructional environments and delineate the essential competencies for effective teaching within this context are conspicuously limited (Compton, 2009).”

“2016) teachers’ technological skills, digital literacy (Kessler 2006) and familiarizing teachers with the constantly shifting trends in software and web applications (Compton 2009).”

“Alternatively, the inclusion of skills related to online instruction in mainstream teacher education programs might be an efficient strategy to improve teachers’ levels of confidence and skills required for online instruction (Compton 2009; Hampel and Stickler 2005; Hubbard 2008).”

“Research endorses the importance of instructors’ technological and pedagogical skills to successfully implement web-based teaching-learning activities (Comas-Quinn, 2011; Compton, 2009; Hauck & Stickler, 2006).”

“Several researchers agree that CALL training has neglected the pedagogical aspect of technology implementation into language learning (e.g. Compton, 2009; Hubbard, 2008; Kessler, 2006, Reinders, 2009).”

“Existing studies concerning online teaching or learning focus mainly on identifying the most significant technical skills such as those needed to use the specific software application, or on dealing with difficulties with particular software and using it in student assessment of learning, as illustrated for instance i…”

“Compton (2009), in turn, considered the lack of CALL teacher educators and trainers as a reason for not having effective CALL courses to train CALL”

“These results lend support to previous studies (e.g. Compton, 2009; Rodriguez & Solis, 2013) in which teachers’ experience and awareness of different roles and skills are of great importance, emphasizing their awareness of interaction and ability to use suitable resources to enhance learning.”

“Since interaction and communication are at the heart of language learning (Hampel & Stickler, 2005), these new teaching skills are especially crucial for online language teachers (Compton, 2009).”

“The online language instruction has gained its popularity over the last decade with the growth of the internet and the proliferation of computer at home (Compton, 2009).”

“As argued by Bennett and Marsh (2002, cited by Compton, 2009), there are two important pieces of knowledge that go beyond the technical level.”

“While technology skills as such may be easy to promote, it may be more challenging to facilitate online socialising and community building as Compton (2009) maintains.”

“It is becoming increasingly recognized that traditional classroom teaching cannot be replicated in an online setting (Compton, 2009; Hampel & Stickler, 2005; Shelley, White, Baumann, & Murphy, 2006; Sun, 2011).”

“…Learning & Technology 84 Although 3D VWs attract the attention of language educators as a potential environment for computerassisted language learning (Peterson, 2006), only a handful of studies (e.g., Deutschmann, Panichi, & Molka-Danielsen, 2009; Peterson, 2006, 2010; Sutcliffe & Alrayes, 2012;…”

“In a study of the skills needed by language educators to teach online, Compton (2009) proposes a detailed framework for key skills or competencies which draws heavily on the work of Hampel and Stickler (2005) and Chapelle and Hegelheimer (2004).”

“For instance, the standards and accreditation protocols for face-to-face teacher education programmes that are used in TESOL may not be suitable for OLTE, given the contextual differences between the two.”

“Teachers, thus, can first learn to use basic ICT tools and media, then select suitable technology to match online learning tasks, and finally creatively adapt existing technology for online learning (Compton, 2009, p. 80).”

“Based upon the necessary teacher qualities, Compton (2009) discusses four responsibilities that language teacher training programs need to assume to prepare future language teachers for quality online language teaching.”

“However, as suggested by (Compton, 2009; Hubbard, 2008; Kessler, 2006), technology is just part of pedagogy.”

“However, effective online language teaching, according to Compton (2009), requires qualified academic staff with distinctive abilities and skills.”

“As Compton (2009) argues, both face-toface interaction and online instructions can have similar problems, yet each method needs different treatment due to its different nature.”

“…that the instructional technology found in online teacher training may better prepare teacher candidates to use technology in their own classrooms (Compton, 2009; Hoven, 2007; Hubbard, 2008), the online participants in Kissau’s study did not report to feel more confident than their F2F peers in…”

“Researchers have long acknowledged the need for language teachers to receive adequate training for new online teaching environments in the face of rapid technological developments (Baumann, Shelley, Murphy & White, 2008; Beaven et al., 2010; Compton, 2009; Ernest, Heiser, & Murphy, 2013; Guichon, 2009; Hampel & Stickl…”

“…recorded in an eye-tracking study, Shi, Stickler, and Llyod (2017 The ability to employ the print mode is, thus, crucial for online teachers who should be “comfortable in using computer-mediated communication (CMC) technologies which include text, audio, and video conferencing” (Compton, 2009: 83).”

“Realizing difficulties in conducting online language teaching of teachers with limited experience in instructional technology, Compton (2009) synthesized skills needed for the new trend of using online tools to teach language.”

“As online tutors, they need not only to become familiar with the technology and learn how to use it creatively, but also to know about its pedagogical value and implications (Compton, 2009; Hampel & Stickler, 2005, White, 2003).”

“In this factor, researchers have identi fi ed pedagogical abilities and practices (Compton, 2009; Gruba et al., 2009; Hampel & Stickler, 2005; Hedayati, 2013; Shelley, White, Bau-mann, & Murphy, 2006; Son et al., 2011); personal characteristics (Gruba et al., 2009); teachers ’ perceptions and…”

“However, the realization of the educational power of technology depends critically on whether teachers can effectively infuse technologies into the curriculum and use technologies to transform their instructional practices (Baylor & Ritchie, 2002; Compton, 2009; Somekh, 2008).”

“However, making the most of this opportunity depends on the teachers’ adoption of new roles and responsibilities to teach online (Compton, 2009), and on their skills and creativity to launch appealing posts and assignments online, as indicated by students’ in the present study.”

“Teachers' high enthusiasm to carry out online learning after the pandemic period needs to be responded to by the government by supporting the existing technological ability to carry out online learning (Gay, 2016) or providing training to teachers (Compton, 2009; Hampel, 2009).”

“Compton (2009) asserted that virtual field experiences and virtual practicum are needed for online teachers to build the complex schema required for effective online language instruction.”

“Although research and best practices related to online language learning are numerous, references about how to prepare language teachers for teaching in an online learning environment and the competencies required for teaching in this environment are rarely found (Compton, 2009).”

“Despite this requirement, recent research suggests that L2 teacher education programs do very little to prepare L2 teacher candidates to use technology in their L2 classrooms (Compton, 2009; Hubbard, 2008; Kessler, 2007).”

“…Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and Scientific Research fail to operate a clear distinction between such actors as ‘teacher’ and ‘tutor’, as noted by Compton (2009, p. 76) probably because in a majority of the cases described, these roles are performed by the same individuals.”

“As learners are key stakeholders in a virtual classroom, training is essential in order to boost their autonomy and allow them to develop a sense of ownership of online learning (Compton, 2009).”

“…rethinking roles and practices (Hall & Knox, 2009; Meskill & Sadykova, 2011; Richardson & Alsup, 2015), and most certainly requires adapting instructional routines to the peculiarities of digital environments (Compton, 2009; Dooly, 2013; Hampel & Stickler, 2005; Meskill &Anthony, 2014, 2015).”

“In addition to this, readers should also be cautious that a natural transition in teaching skills from F2F to online interactive learning requires adequate training and skills (Compton, 2009; Hampel & Stickler, 2005), which is reinforced in chapter 4.”

“Online socialization among learners is important for promoting communication in learning in an online environment; however, Compton (2009) suggests that online socialization through learner-learner interaction should not be viewed as the only method to promote language acquisition.”

“Based on the evaluation outcomes, a decision can be made as to the pertinent modifications to the applied methodology (Compton 2009).”

“As regards support, Compton (2009) states that ‘there is a dearth of resources on how to prepare teachers for online language teaching and the skills needed for this new teaching environment’ (p. 74).”

“The skills pyramid model has been used in the analysis despite much criticism it has encountered over recent years (e.g., Compton, 2009; Hong, 2010) since it closely corresponds to and aptly describes the teacher training framework in Poland.”

“This finding has been previously confirmed in the literature (Comas-Quinn, 2011; Compton, 2009; Fathi & Ebadi, 2020; Habibi et al., 2019; Li & Ni, 2011).”

“Because teacher preparation programs rarely include aspects of online pedagogy (Kennedy & Archambault, 2012), language teachers are likely untrained beyond basic technical and softwarespecific skills (Compton, 2009).”

“Professional development programs should take into consideration the necessity of facilitating communication and interaction in online setting (Compton, 2009; Hampel & Stickler, 2005).”

“Our framework is based upon that of Compton (2009), who performed a review of key publications in computer assisted language learning, online (language) education, and teacher education published between 2000 and 2008.”