Levels of processing: Past, present... and future?
Abstract
In this article I first briefly survey some enduring legacies of the Craik and Lockhart (1972) article on levels of processing (LOP) and address some common criticisms. In the next section I discuss whether memory can be regarded as "pure processing", the role of short-term memory in an LOP framework, measurement of "depth" in LOP, encoding-retrieval interactions, the concept of consolidation, and the reality of "levels" of processing. In the final section I offer some speculations on future directions, discussing the notion of levels of representation and a possible continuing role for LOP in memory research.
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Safe, harmless subjects only feebly stimulate the cognitive engagement important to durable learning.
“Likewise, safe, ' harmless ' subjects (Akbari, 2008a, p. 281) only feebly stimulate the cognitive engagement that is so important to durable learning (see, for example, Craik, 2002; Tomlinson, 2012).”
From The Global ELT coursebook: A case of Cinderella's slipper? (2022) · cites this paper as Craik, 2002
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The Global ELT coursebook: A case of Cinderella's slipper?
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“Likewise, safe, ‘harmless’ subjects (Akbari, 2008a, p. 281) only feebly stimulate the cognitive engagement that is so important to durable learning (see, for example, Craik, 2002; Tomlinson, 2012).”
BackgroundRetrieval Practice Versus Elaborative Encoding: A Systematic and Meta-analytic Review
Gonçalves, A. D. O., Muniz, B. F. B., & Jaeger, A. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10076-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Craik, F. I. M.
- Affiliations
- Rotman Research Institute (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Craik, Fergus I.M.
- ORCID
- Craik, Fergus I.M.
- Venue
- Memory
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2002-09
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 5-6
- Pages
- 305-318
- ISSN
- 0965-8211 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0686
- OpenAlex
- W2018434576
- Cited by
- 692
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 51 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 39
- FWCI
- 4.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Memory (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- levels of processing, short-term memory, memory consolidation, levels of representation, memory studies
- MeSH terms
- Forecasting, Humans, Memory, Memory, Short-Term, Models, Psychological, Neuropsychology, Psychology, Experimental, Mental Recall, Retention, Psychology
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