People who expect to enter psychotherapy are prone to believing that they have forgotten memories of childhood trauma and abuse
Open accessAbstract
We asked 1004 undergraduates to estimate both the probability that they would enter therapy and the probability that they experienced but could not remember incidents of potentially life-threatening childhood traumas or physical and sexual abuse. We found a linear relation between the expectation of entering therapy and the belief that one had, but cannot now remember, childhood trauma and abuse. Thus individuals who are prone to seek psychotherapy are also prone to accept a suggested memory of childhood trauma or abuse as fitting their expectations. In multiple regressions predicting the probability of forgotten memories of childhood traumas and abuse, the expectation of entering therapy remained as a substantial predictor when self-report measures of mood, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder symptom severity, and trauma exposure were included. © 2010 Psychology Press.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In a large undergraduate sample, the more people expected to enter psychotherapy, the more they believed they had forgotten childhood trauma or abuse. This association held after accounting for mood, anxiety, PTSD symptoms, and prior trauma exposure, suggesting that therapy-seeking expectations may align with beliefs about forgotten abuse.
Key findings
- Expected therapy probability was linearly related to estimated probability of forgotten memories: correlations were .30 for extremely upsetting events, .23 for traumatic events, .25 for abuse, and .33 for all five forgotten-memory items combined (all p < .0001).
- Among participants who estimated their chance of entering therapy at .6 or above, the mean estimated probability of forgotten childhood abuse was .22; the top half of this group averaged .42, and the top quartile averaged .66.
- In multiple regressions predicting forgotten memories, the therapy-entry estimate remained a substantial predictor even with negative affect, depression, positive affect, PTSD symptom severity, event centrality, trauma count, and gender included.
- A secondary regression predicting therapy-entry estimates included forgotten memory (.21), PCL (.10), QIDS (.13), NA (.13), and gender (.12), with r-square = .20; past trauma count did not enter.
Methods
- 1,004 University of North Texas undergraduates (mean age 20.04, SD = 2.94; 681 females) completed questionnaires during a mass testing session.
- Measures included five 0–100 items on likelihood of seeking psychotherapy, five 0–100 items on likelihood of forgotten negative childhood events, plus PANAS, PCL, CES, QIDS, and TEQ.
- Analyses used ANOVA with therapy-probability bins, planned linear comparisons, correlations, and multiple regressions.
Limitations
- The paper states that the relationship does not imply causation and assumes participants’ predictions about entering therapy are reasonably accurate indicators of future behavior.
- Evident from the text: the design is cross-sectional and self-report, uses an undergraduate sample, and does not observe actual therapy entry or memory creation.
- Evident from the text: the TEQ trauma-count measure had low internal consistency (α = .59), and the forgotten traumatic-event subscale also had modest reliability (α = .54).
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
3 of 17 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Findingown data
In terms of differences, the upsetting events had twice the increase of the traumatic and abuse events (.38 versus .19 and .19).
“Thus, in terms of differences, the upsetting events have twice the increase of the traumatic and abuse events (i.e. .38 = .64 – .26 versus .19 = .32 – .13 and .19 = .22 – .03).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In a sample of 1004 undergraduates, the estimated probability of entering psychotherapy and the estimated probability of having forgotten memories of childhood trauma and abuse are linearly related.
“We found a linear relation between the expectation of entering therapy and the belief that one had, but cannot now remember, childhood trauma and abuse.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Figure 1 presents the main findings: a linear increase in the probability of forgotten memories of extremely upsetting events, traumatic events, and childhood abuse as a function of the probability of expected entry into therapy.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“In a large sample of undergraduates, we found a linear relationship between estimates of the likelihood of entering psychotherapy and the likelihood of unrecalled memories of upsetting childhood events, potentially life threatening traumatic childhood events, and childhood abuse.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Findingown data
For the upsetting, traumatic, and abuse plots considered individually, the ANOVAs were significant (F(6, 997) = 16.99, 9.66, and 10.77, respectively; all ps < .0001).
“For the upsetting, traumatic, and abuse plots considered individually, the ANOVAs are F(6, 997) = 16.99, F(6, 997) = 9.66, and F(6, 997) = 10.77, respectively (all ps < .0001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Strong linear trends were found for the upsetting, traumatic, and abuse items (F(1, 997) = 100.72, 53.39, and 62.85, respectively; all ps < .0001).
“There were strong linear trends measured by a −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3 planned comparison of F(1, 997) = 100.72, F(1, 997) = 53.39, and F(1, 997) = 62.85, respectively (all ps < .0001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The linear increase in forgotten-memory estimates as a function of expected therapy entry holds separately for extremely upsetting events, potentially life-threatening traumatic events, and childhood abuse.
“Figure 1 presents the main findings: a linear increase in the probability of forgotten memories of extremely upsetting events, traumatic events, and childhood abuse as a function of the probability of expected entry into therapy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
Other factors correlate with belief in forgotten memories of trauma, including the number of different kinds of traumas experienced, negative mood, and PTSD symptom severity.
“In addition, other factors correlate with belief in forgotten memories of trauma including the number of different kinds of traumas experienced, negative mood, and PTSD symptom severity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Participants who estimated their probability of entering therapy at greater than .6 estimated the probability that they had forgotten one or more incidents of their own childhood abuse at .22.
“Participants, who estimated the probability of entering therapy in the future at greater than .6, estimated the probability that they themselves had forgotten one or more incidents of their own childhood abuse at .22.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Memories recovered in psychotherapy have been more difficult to corroborate.
“Second, memories recovered in psychotherapy have been more difficult to corroborate (Geraerts et al., 2007).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Geraerts et al., 2007 source
- Interpretationreasoning
If people's forecasts of entering psychotherapy reasonably reflect their future actions, then those more likely to enter therapy are also those more likely to believe they may have forgotten their own childhood trauma or abuse.
“Assuming people's predictions about entering psychotherapy are fairly accurate indicators of their future behavior, the people who are more likely to enter therapy are the same people who are likely to believe that they could have forgotten memories of their own childhood trauma or abuse.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: People's predictions about entering psychotherapy are fairly accurate indicators of their future behavior.
- Rests on an assumption: The relationship observed in undergraduates generalizes to people who actually enter psychotherapy.
- Premisecitation
Historically, many individuals have recalled memories of childhood abuse in psychotherapy.
“First, historically, many individuals have recalled memories of childhood abuse in psychotherapy (Loftus & Davis, 2006).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Loftus & Davis, 2006 source
- Interpretationreasoning
The relationship between estimates of entering therapy and forgotten memories does not imply that one causes the other.
“Estimates of entering therapy and of having forgotten very negative childhood events are related, but this does not imply that one causes the other.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
The reported number of past traumas has its effect on therapy estimates through the other measures.
“Unlike the predictions of forgotten memories, being female is a predictor, but the TEQ measure of past traumas does not enter, implying that the reported number of past traumas has its effect through the other measures.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The five-item scale for unrecalled memories was reliable (α = .71).
“A similar five-item scale for unrecalled memories was also reliable (mean = .22, SD = .20, α = .71).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The co-occurrence of the two sets of beliefs increases the potential for psychotherapy to create false memories.
“The co-occurrence of these two sets of beliefs increases the potential for psychotherapy to create false memories.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: People's predictions about entering psychotherapy are fairly accurate indicators of their future behavior.
- Rests on an assumption: Belief that one has forgotten memories of childhood trauma and abuse is a measure of schema-consistency.
- Rests on an assumption: The relationship observed in undergraduates generalizes to people who actually enter psychotherapy.
- Interpretationown data
Among those who think it is likely that they will enter therapy, there are many who find their own forgotten abuse likely.
“Thus, among those who think it is likely that they will enter therapy, there are many who find their own forgotten abuse likely.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Participants who reported a high likelihood of entering therapy also thought that it was plausible that they had unrecalled memories of childhood sexual abuse.
“Fourth, participants who reported a high likelihood of entering therapy also thought that it was plausible that they had unrecalled memories of childhood sexual abuse (Pezdek & Blandon-Gitlin, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Pezdek & Blandon-Gitlin, 2009 source
- Interpretationreasoning
A person's likelihood of forming a memory of childhood trauma or abuse during therapy is raised by their belief in unconscious, repressed, recovered, or forgotten such memories.
“The person's chances of creating a memory of childhood trauma or abuse in therapy are increased by their belief in unconscious, repressed, recovered, or forgotten childhood trauma and abuse memories.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: People's predictions about entering psychotherapy are fairly accurate indicators of their future behavior.
- Rests on an assumption: Belief that one has forgotten memories of childhood trauma and abuse is a measure of schema-consistency.
- Rests on an assumption: The relationship observed in undergraduates generalizes to people who actually enter psychotherapy.
- Premisecitation
People who recovered memories in therapy have cognitive processes that differ from those who always remembered similar events or recovered them spontaneously outside therapy.
“Third, the cognitive processes of people who have recovered memories in psychotherapy differ from those of people that always remembered similar events or spontaneously recovered them outside of psychotherapy (McNally & Geraerts, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McNally & Geraerts, 2009 source
- Premisecitation
Memories of nonexistent objects, words, or events are easier to create if they fit a person's expectations.
“One of the basic observations of psychology is the unsurprising finding that memories of nonexistent objects, words, or events are easier to create if they fit a person's expectations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Bartlett (1932)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Gallo, 2006
- cites Roediger & McDermott, 1995 source
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15
- May combine two claims. 11
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductcitationThe PANAS NA and PA scales have high reliability (0.84-0.87 for NA, 0.89-0.90 for PA).
“Both scales have high reliability ranging from 0.84 to 0.87 for the NA Scale and 0.89 to 0.90 for the PA Scale (Crawford & Henry, 2004).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Crawford & Henry, 2004 source
The “Reliabilities of the PANAS” section reports Cronbach’s alpha of .85 for NA (95% CI .84–.87) and .89 for PA (95% CI .88–.90). The claim correctly conveys that both scales have high reliability and gives the NA confidence interval, but it presents confidence intervals as reliability ranges and gives .89 rather than .88 as the PA lower bound. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationIt is easier to create a memory of a plausible than an implausible event.
“Similarly, it is easier to create a memory of a plausible than an implausible event (Pezdek et al., 2006).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Pezdek et al., 2006 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitationThe CES is a 7-item questionnaire measuring centrality of events, with reliability ranging from .88 to .94.
“The CES is a 7-item questionnaire designed to measure the extent to which an event is viewed being as central to one's identity.”
- Also stated in: § Materials · plain
“The scale's reliability ranges from .88 to .94.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Berntsen & Rubin, 2006 source
The Results and Discussion describe a 7-item CES that measures how central an event is to personal identity. They report reliability of α = .88 for the 7-item version and α = .92 in a second sample; α = .94 belongs to the 20-item version, so the claimed range for the 7-item questionnaire is not supported. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Also stated in: § Materials · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataParticipants who estimated their chances of entering therapy at .6 or above had mean probabilities of forgotten memories of .64 for upsetting events, .32 for traumatic events, and .22 for abuse.
“Participants who estimated their chances of entering therapy at .6 or above are the points at far right of Figure 1. For the upsetting, traumatic, and abuse items, they are .64, .32, and .22, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn terms of percentages, the upsetting and traumatic events both increased by 246%, while the abuse items increased by 733%.
“However, in terms of percentages, the upsetting and traumatic events both increased by 246% (.64 / .26 and .32 / .13), which is one third the 733% percentage increase of the abuse items (.22 / .03).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataThe linear trends accounted for 99%, 92%, and 97% of the sums of squares of the therapy-scale effect for the upsetting, traumatic, and abuse items, respectively.
“The sums of squares of the linear trends account for 99, 92, and 97% of the sums of squares of the effect of the therapy scale.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataThere was a significant interaction between type of forgotten-memory question and therapy bin (F(12, 1994) = 3.48, p < .0001).
“The results also revealed a significant interaction (F(12, 1994) = 3.48, p < .0001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataANOVAs showed significant effects of the three types of forgotten-memory questions and the seven therapy bins.
“Consistent with Figure 1, ANOVAs showed a significant effect of the three types of forgotten memory questions (F(2, 1994) = 540.18) and the seven therapy bins (F(6, 997) = 21.86).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataParticipants who estimated their chances of entering therapy at .0 had mean probabilities of forgotten memories of .26 for upsetting events, .13 for traumatic events, and .03 for abuse.
“The mean estimate of the probability of a forgotten memory in the participants who estimated their chances of entering therapy at .0 are the three points at far left of Figure 1, For the upsetting, traumatic, and abuse items, they are .26, .13, and .03, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAmong those participants, the half with the highest estimates of childhood abuse had a mean of .42 for forgotten childhood abuse, and the top quartile had a mean of .66.
“The half of these participants who had the highest estimates of childhood abuse had a mean of .42 for forgotten childhood abuse, and the top quartile had a mean of .66.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn multiple regressions predicting forgotten memories, the estimate of entering therapy remained a substantial predictor when measures of negative affectivity, negative mood, PTSD symptom severity, centrality of events, number of traumas, and gender were included.
“In multiple regressions predicting the probability of forgotten memories of childhood traumas and abuse, the expectation of entering therapy remained as a substantial predictor when self-report measures of mood, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity, and trauma exposure were included.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“In all the regression equations, the estimate of entering therapy remained a substantial predictor.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Results · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataCorrelations between estimates of entering therapy and forgotten memories were .30 for extremely upsetting events, .23 for traumatic events, .25 for abuse, and .33 for all five items combined (all r(1002), p < .0001).
“The correlations among estimates of entering therapy and forgotten memories of extremely upsetting events, traumatic events, abuse, and all five items regarding forgotten memories combined are .30, .23, .25, and .33, respectively (all r(1002), all p < .0001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the regression predicting therapy estimates, being female is a predictor, but the TEQ measure of past traumas does not enter.
“Unlike the predictions of forgotten memories, being female is a predictor, but the TEQ measure of past traumas does not enter, implying that the reported number of past traumas has its effect through the other measures.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataIn a multiple regression predicting therapy estimates, the standardized coefficients were .21 for forgotten memory, .10 for PCL, .13 for QIDS, .13 for NA, and .12 for gender, with r-square = .20.
“Using the same variables and methods, and the forgotten memory measure based on all five memory items, the multiple regression is: therapy = .21 forgotten memory + .10 PCL + .13 QIDS + .13 NA +.12 gender, r-square = .20.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe five therapy items formed a reliable scale (α = .83).
“We averaged the five therapy items to produce a reliable scale (mean = .27, SD = .23, α = .83).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitationThe QIDS has internal consistency α = 0.86 and is highly correlated with other depression measures such as the Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology.
“Internal consistency is α = 0.86. The measure has shown to be highly correlated with other measures of depression such as the Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (Trivedi et al., 2004).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Trivedi et al., 2004 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductcitationThe TEQ shows good test-retest reliability over two weeks for the number of traumatic events experienced (r = 0.91).
“The Traumatic Events Questionnaire shows good test-retest reliability over a two week period for the number of traumatic events experienced (r = 0.91) (Vrana & Lauterbach, 1994).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Vrana & Lauterbach, 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe two abuse questions formed a reliable scale (α = .73).
“we grouped the five items concerning forgotten memories into three conceptual groups: 1) the extremely upsetting event question (mean = .44, SD = .36), 2) the two traumatic event questions (mean = .22, SD = .25, α = .54), and 3) the two abuse questions (mean = .11, SD = .23, α = .73).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationObjects or words that are schema consistent intrude more often as false memories than those that are not.
“Thus, objects or words that are schema consistent intrude more often as false memories than those that are not.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Bartlett (1932)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Gallo, 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Roediger & McDermott, 1995 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe items measured likelihood rather than plausibility because likelihood/belief is a higher-level construct than plausibility, allowing a direct quantitative estimate.
“The items are about the likelihood of such occurrences, as opposed to the plausibility, because likelihood/belief is a higher level construct than plausibility (Scoboria, Mazzoni, Kirsch, & Relyea, 2004), which allows for a direct quantitative estimate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Scoboria, Mazzoni, Kirsch, & Relyea, 2004 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitationThe PCL-S has a correlation of r = .93 with the Clinician-assisted PTSD scale, internal consistency α = .97, and test-retest reliability r = .96.
“The correlation between the PCL-S and the Clinician-assisted posttraumatic stress disorder scale is r = .93. The reported internal consistency is α = .97 and the test-retest reliability is r = .96 (Weathers, Litz, Herman, Huska, & Keane, 1993).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Weathers, Litz, Herman, Huska, & Keane, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningA likely explanation for the association is that both estimates belong to a broader set of beliefs about therapy's effectiveness and about what a therapist can discover that the patient cannot access.
“A likely reason for the relation is that both estimates are part of a larger constellation of beliefs about the efficacy of therapy and what a therapist can understand or uncover that is hidden from the patient.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductreasoningThe therapy items preceded the forgotten-memory items so that responses about traumatic events could not influence later answers about seeking therapy.
“The five items concerning therapy were placed before the five items concerning forgotten memories to eliminate any possibility that answering questions about traumatic events could influence subsequent items about seeking therapy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
People's predictions about entering psychotherapy are fairly accurate indicators of their future behavior.
“Assuming people's predictions about entering psychotherapy are fairly accurate indicators of their future behavior”
The paper relies on this without support.
Belief that one has forgotten memories of childhood trauma and abuse is a measure of schema-consistency.
“We therefore ask whether there is a relationship between the likelihood of a person believing that they have forgotten memories of childhood trauma and abuse (i.e., a measure of schema-consistency) and their likelihood of entering therapy.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The relationship observed in undergraduates generalizes to people who actually enter psychotherapy.
“the people who are more likely to enter therapy are the same people who are likely to believe that they could have forgotten memories of their own childhood trauma or abuse”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- ConsistentF(12, 1994) = 3.48reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(12, 1994) = 3.48, p < .0001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The 246% figure is a final-to-initial ratio, not an increase
MinorFor upsetting events, the reported probabilities rise from .26 to .64, a difference of .38. Relative to .26, that is an increase of about 146%, not 246%; the same distinction applies to the traumatic-event figures.
Reported 246 · recomputed 146.153846
“the upsetting and traumatic events both increased by 246% (.64 / .26 and .32 / .13)”
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Plausibility and belief in autobiographical memory
Scoboria, A., Mazzoni, G., Kirsch, I., & Relyea, M. (2004) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1062 · Cited by 196 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The items are about the likelihood of such occurrences, as opposed to the plausibility, because likelihood/belief is a higher-level construct than plausibility (Scoboria, Mazzoni, Kirsch, & Relyea, 2004 ), which allows for a direct quantitative estimate.”
BackgroundRecovered Memories and False Memories
(1997) · doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780198523864.001.0001 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Loftus, E. F., & Davis, D. (2006) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095315 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
A New Solution to the Recovered Memory Debate
McNally, R. J., & Geraerts, E. (2009) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01112.x · Cited by 127 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Third, the cognitive processes of people who have recovered memories in psychotherapy differ from those of people who always remembered similar events or spontaneously recovered them outside psychotherapy (McNally & Geraerts, 2009).”
Kihlstrom, J. F. (2005) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143925 · Cited by 127 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…and one of great practical importance, is whether memories of childhood abuse can be forgotten and recovered during psychotherapy: the so-called ‘‘memory wars’’ (e.g., Baker, 1998; Brandon, Boakes, Glaser, & Green 1998; Conway, 1997; Kihlstrom, 2005; Loftus & Davis, 2006; Lynn & McConkey, 1998).”
Recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse: Implications for clinical practice
Brandon, S., Boakes, J., Glaser, D., & Green, R. (1998) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.172.4.296 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Goody, J. R. (1998) · Memory · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139171137.005 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Lynn, S. J., McConkey, K. M., & Cloître, M. (1999) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.13.4.383 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Imagination and memory: Does imagining implausible events lead to false autobiographical memories?
Pezdek, K., Blandon-Gitlin, I., & Gabbay, P. (2006) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03193994 · Cited by 82 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Similarly, it is easier to create a memory of a plausible than an implausible event (Pezdek et al., 2006).”
Geraerts, E., Schooler, J. W., Merckelbach, H., Jelicic, M., J.A. Hauer, B., & Ambadar, Z. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01940.x · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Associative Illusions of Memory
Gallo, D. A. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203782934 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
People believe it is plausible to have forgotten memories of childhood sexual abuse
Rubin, D. C., & Berntsen, D. (2007) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196836 · Cited by 23 · cited 2× · see citing works
“This question hinges in large part on knowing how easy it would be to create a false memory of childhood abuse or other events during therapy (Pezdek & Blandon-Gitlin, 2009; Pezdek, Blandon-Gitlin, & Gabbay, 2006; Rubin & Berntsen, 2007, 2009).”
Self-citationPezdek, K., & Blandon‐Gitlin, I. (2009) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1466 · Cited by 15 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Fourth, participants who reported a high likelihood of entering therapy also thought it was plausible that they had unrecalled memories of childhood sexual abuse (Pezdek & Blandon-Gitlin, 2009).”
(1998) · Prometheus Books · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Schlesinger, G. N. (1977) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-1235-5_10 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Rubin, D. C., & Berntsen, D. (2008) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1462 · Cited by 3 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This question hinges in large part on knowing how easy it would be to create a false memory of childhood abuse or other events during therapy (Pezdek & Blandon-Gitlin, 2009 ; Pezdek, Blandon-Gitlin, & Gabbay, 2006 ; Rubin & Berntsen, 2007 , 2009 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
3 of the 40 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Weathers F., 1993, The PTSD checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Trauma-Informed Social Work Practice: Practice Considerations and Challenges
Knight, C. (2014) · Clinical Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10615-014-0481-6 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
“When memories surface in the present and/or are fragmented, the worker accepts that memories of abuse may be psychologically and affectively true, even though they may not be historically accurate (Reimer 2010; Rubin and Boals 2010).”
BackgroundResultReilly, T. J., MacGillivray, S. A., Reid, I. C., & Cameron, I. M. (2015) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.09.008 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Psychological and Clinical Correlates of the Centrality of Event Scale: A Systematic Review
Gehrt, T., Berntsen, D., Hoyle, R., & Rubin, D. C. (2018) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2018.07.006 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Self-citationOst, J. (2016) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2016.1187757 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“The second analysis compared the reasons given by retractors for repudiating their recollections of abuse with the reasons that participants in Scoboria et al.’s (2015) study gave for withdrawing or attenuating belief in their recollections. Table 3 shows the nine overarching categories derived by Scoboria et al. (201…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialRecovered memories in psychotherapy: a survey of practicing psychotherapists in Germany
Schemmel, J., Datschewski, L., & Volbert, R. (2024) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2024.2305870 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“This fi nding is consistent with previous research on patient assumptions about sexual abuse before therapy (Rubin & Boals, 2010) and on vague patient suspicions preceding memory recovery (Andrews et al., 2000).”
BackgroundResultDodier, O., Gilet, A.-L., & Colombel, F. (2021) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2020.1868524 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Psychometrics and latent structure of the IDS and QIDS with young adult students
González, D. A., Boals, A., Jenkins, S. R., Schuler, E. R., & Taylor, D. J. (2013) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.01.027 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, many studies have used these measures with students (Flury and Ickes, 2007; Gunstad and Suhr, 2004; Roelofs et al., 2007; Rubin and Boals, 2010; Taylor et al., 2011).”
BackgroundSelf-citationChiu, C., Yeh, Y., Ross, C. A., Lin, S., Huang, W., & Hwu, H. (2012) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.10.002 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“People who are interested in psychotherapy may be biased to believe that they have forgotten memories of childhood trauma and abuse (Rubin and Boals, 2010).”
Emotional Intelligence for Coping with the Consequences of Childhood Trauma
Sarafim-Silva, B. A. M., & Bernabé, D. G. (2021) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.97838 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Recovered Memories and Suggestibility for Entire Events
Ost, J. (2012) · doi:10.1002/9781118432907.ch6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Radcliffe, P. J., & Patihis, L. (2025) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2025.2498929 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Lastly, therapists and/or vulnerable patients may start therapy, already presuming hidden memories of trauma exist, that await therapeutic discovery to bring psychological relief (Rubin & Boals, 2010).”
Recovered memories and false memories
Davis, D., & Loftus, E. F. (2020) · doi:10.1093/med/9780198713005.003.0085 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Zur Glaubhaftigkeit von Zeug*innenaussagen: Die aussagepsychologische Begutachtung
Schemmel, J., Tamm, A., & Volbert, R. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-64465-2_7 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
What Do People Really Think of When They Claim to Believe in Repressed Memory?Preprint
Dodier, O., Gilet, A.-L., & Colombel, F. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/4qrny · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Dunaetz, D. R. (2020) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/5phc9
“In addition, research has found that people who think it is likely that they will one day begin psychotherapy tend to believe that the therapist will be able to uncover repressed childhood trauma, predisposing themselves to even inadvertent suggestions of abuse (Rubin and Boals 2010).”
Background
- Authors
- Rubin, D. C., & Boals, A.
- Affiliations
- Duke University (US)
- University of North Texas (US)
- Corresponding author
- Rubin, David C.
- Venue
- Memory
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2010-07
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 556-562
- ISSN
- 0965-8211 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0686
- PMC
- PMC2904647
- OpenAlex
- W2018974962
- Semantic Scholar
- 623b76e80f1da606cd8f0d8d8ab769ecd818bde3
- Cited by
- 15
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 3 · 2018: 1 · 2016: 1 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 0.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Memory (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) (submittedVersion)
- DukeSpace (Duke University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH066079)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
- Keywords
- childhood trauma, childhood abuse, traumatic memory, forgotten memories, expectancy, suggestibility, memory distortion, post-traumatic stress disorder, trauma exposure, mood, anxiety
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Affect, Anxiety, Child, Child Abuse, Female, Humans, Male, Patient Acceptance of Health Care, Psychotherapy, Repression, Psychology, Severity of Illness Index, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Suggestion, Wounds and Injuries
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