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Cited by 3,792Memory Processes and InfluencesMemory and Neural MechanismsIdentity, Memory, and Therapy

Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists.

Roediger, Henry L., McDermott, Kathleen B.·1995·Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
DOI 10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.803
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Abstract

Two experiments (modeled after J. Deese's 1959 study) revealed remarkable levels of false recall and false recognition in a list learning paradigm. In Experiment 1, subjects studied lists of 12 words (e.g., bed, rest, awake); each list was composed of associates of 1 nonpresented word (e.g., sleep). On immediate free recall tests, the nonpresented associates were recalled 40 % of the time and were later recognized with high confidence. In Experiment 2, a false recall rate of 55 % was obtained with an expanded set of lists, and on a later recognition test, subjects produced false alarms to these items at a rate comparable to the hit rate. The act of recall enhanced later remembering of both studied and nonstudied material. The results reveal a powerful illusion of memory: People remember events that never happened. False memories—either remembering events that never happened, or remembering them quite differently from the way they happened—have recently captured the attention of both psychologists and the public at large. The primary impetus for this recent surge of interest is the increase in the number of cases in which memories of previously unrecognized

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4 of 4 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

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  • Objects or words that are schema consistent intrude more often as false memories than those that are not.

    “Thus, objects or words that are schema consistent intrude more often as false memories than those that are not.”

    From People who expect to enter psychotherapy are prone to believing that they have forgotten memories of childhood trauma and abuse (2010) · cites this paper as Roediger & McDermott, 1995

  • Memories of nonexistent objects, words, or events are easier to create if they fit a person's expectations.

    “One of the basic observations of psychology is the unsurprising finding that memories of nonexistent objects, words, or events are easier to create if they fit a person's expectations.”

    From People who expect to enter psychotherapy are prone to believing that they have forgotten memories of childhood trauma and abuse (2010) · cites this paper as Roediger & McDermott, 1995

  • Developers traditionally build expertise through deliberate practice, pattern recognition, and incremental learning.

    “Developers traditionally build expertise through deliberate practice, pattern recognition, and incremental learning -all of which are well established principles from educational psychology [3,8,11,15,35].”

    From The Evolution of Information Seeking in Software Development: Understanding the Role and Impact of AI Assistants (2025) · cites this paper as [35]

  • In humans, memory is also prone to error and malleable in response to social context.

    “Note that in humans, memory is also prone to error (Roediger and McDermott, 1995) and malleable in response to social context (Brown et al., 2012).”

    From Does It Make Sense to Speak of Introspection in Large Language Models? (2025) · cites this paper as Roediger and McDermott, 1995

  • When the final test is recall, the testing effect is robust; when the final test is recognition, sometimes there are benefits of initial recall but sometimes not.

    “When the final test is recall, the testing effect is robust; however, when the final test is recognition, sometimes there are benefits of initial recall (Hanawalt & Tarr 1961, Roediger & McDermott 1995) but sometimes not (Darley & Murdock 1971, Lockhart 1975).”

    From Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning (2021) · cites this paper as Roediger & McDermott 1995

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Authors
Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B.
ORCID
McDermott, Kathleen B.
Venue
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
1995-07
Volume
21
Issue
4
Pages
803-814
ISSN
  • 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1285
DOI
10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.803
OpenAlex
W2097868335
Cited by
3,792
References
4
Citations by year
2026: 48 · 2025: 101 · 2024: 139 · 2023: 135 · 2022: 138 · 2021: 182 · 2020: 166 · 2019: 185 · 2018: 171 · 2017: 178 · 2016: 154 · 2015: 151 · 2014: 157 · 2013: 179 · 2012: 173
FWCI
26.34
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
Keywords
false memory, Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm, list learning, free recall, recognition memory, false recognition, false alarms, word associates

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