The Vigilance, Orienting, and Executive Attention Networks in 4-Year-Old Children
Abstract
The present study examined the development of lower and higher order forms of attention during the preschool years. Lower forms of attention were assessed with tasks that primarily engaged the attention functions of vigilance and orienting. Higher, executive forms of attention were assessed with tasks that involved inhibition and working memory. The findings revealed that performance improved significantly with age on measures of inhibition and orienting. Results are discussed in the context of the development of attentional networks.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Computer-based tasks suitable for preschoolers have been designed based on previously validated measures of attention and executive function, including Go/No-Go, response inhibition, delayed alternation, self-ordered pointing, and working memory tasks.
“and colleagues have successfully designed computer based tasks suitable for preschoolers based on previously validated measures of attention and executive function including appealing and interactive Go/No-Go, response inhibition, delayed alternation, self-ordered pointing and working memory tasks (Hrabok, Kerns, & Muller, 2007;Muller, Kerns, & Konkin, 2012).”
From Assessing Executive Function in Preschoolers (2012) · cites this paper as Hrabok, Kerns, & Muller, 2007
Cites
The attention system of the human brain
Posner, M. I., & Petersen, S. E. (1990) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325 · Cited by 8,070 · cited 6× · see citing works
“The goal of the present study was to examine the development of lower and higher order forms of attention and their relations in preschoolers, using Posner and Petersen's (1990) model of attention as an organizational framework.”
InfluentialCognitive and emotional influences in anterior cingulate cortex
Bush, G., Luu, P., & Posner, M. I. (2000) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01483-2 · Cited by 6,259 · see citing works
Essentials of Behavioral Research: Methods and Data Analysis
Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (1984) · Cited by 3,925 · see citing works
Handbook of self-regulation: research, theory, and applications
(2005) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.42-3719 · Cited by 3,644 · see citing works
Components of visual orienting
Posner, M. I. (1984) · Attention and performance · Cited by 2,980 · see citing works
Working Memory Capacity as Executive Attention
Engle, R. W. (2002) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00160 · Cited by 2,507 · see citing works
Chronometric explorations of mind
Posner, M. I. (1978) · Cited by 2,441 · see citing works
Nigg, J. T. (2000) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.220 · Cited by 1,941 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…by links that have been established between more automatic and controlled forms of inhibition throughout early childhood (Aksan & Kochanska, 2004), and by subsuming both oculomotor inhibition and orienting, as well as behavioral inhibition to a larger class of inhibitory functions (Nigg, 2000).”
ADHD and The Nature of Self-Control
Barkley, R. A., & Wasserstein, J. (2000) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.14.1.111 · Cited by 1,639 · see citing works
Developmentally Sensitive Measures of Executive Function in Preschool Children
Carlson, S. M. (2005) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2802_3 · Cited by 1,638 · see citing works
Executive dysfunction in autism☆
Hill, E. L. (2004) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.11.003 · Cited by 1,468 · see citing works
Developing mechanisms of self-regulation
POSNER, M. I., & ROTHBART, M. K. (2000) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579400003096 · Cited by 1,349 · see citing works
Deficits on subject-ordered tasks after frontal- and temporal-lobe lesions in man
Petrides, M., & Milner, B. A. (1982) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(82)90100-2 · Cited by 1,272 · see citing works
Diamond, A. (2002) · Principles of Frontal Lobe Function · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195134971.003.0029 · Cited by 1,248 · see citing works
ADHD and the Nature of Self-Control
Hinshaw, S. P. (1998) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/00004703-199806000-00010 · Cited by 1,209 · see citing works
Exploratory Behavior in the Development of Perceiving, Acting, and the Acquiring of Knowledge
Gibson, E. J. (1988) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.39.020188.000245 · Cited by 1,126 · see citing works
Lu, C.-H., & Proctor, R. W. (1995) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03210959 · Cited by 962 · see citing works
Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children: Views from developmental psychology
Welsh, M. C., & Pennington, B. F. (1988) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565648809540405 · Cited by 846 · see citing works
Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Breton, C. (2002) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.298 · Cited by 838 · see citing works
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention
Melara, R. D. (2004) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781483328768.n11 · Cited by 797 · see citing works
Executive Function in Typical and Atypical Development
Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2010) · The Wiley‐Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development · doi:10.1002/9781444325485.ch22 · Cited by 784 · see citing works
Self-citationAttention in Early Development: Themes and Variations
Ruff, H. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2001) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 705 · see citing works
Executive Function in Typical and Atypical Development
Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2002) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470996652.ch20 · Cited by 692 · see citing works
Self-citationExecutive function and theory of mind: Stability and prediction from ages 2 to 3.
Carlson, S. M., Mandell, D. J., & Williams, L. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1105 · Cited by 684 · see citing works
Developmental change in speed of processing during childhood and adolescence
Kail, R. (1991) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.109.3.490 · Cited by 673 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This finding also suggests that advances in these skills cannot be fully accounted for by age-related changes in domain general skills, such as processing speed (Kail, 1991), because the measures derived from both vigilance and orienting tasks depend on speed of processing.”
Development of theory of mind and executive control
Perner, J., & Lang, B. (1999) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(99)01362-5 · Cited by 656 · see citing works
Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Claxton, L. J. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2004.01.002 · Cited by 614 · see citing works
Johnson, M. H., Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (1991) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.1991.3.4.335 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
Clinical neuropsychology of attention
Niedermeyer, E. (1994) · Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/0013-4694(94)90083-3 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
Clinical Neuropsychology of Attention
van Zomeren, A. H., & Brouwer, W. (1994) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 466 · see citing works
Ecological Validity of Neuropsychological Testing
Long, C. J., & Sbordone, R. J. (1996) · Cited by 404 · see citing works
Luciana, M., & Nelson, C. A. (2002) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2203_3 · Cited by 400 · see citing works
An interactive framework for examining prefrontal cognitive processes
Roberts, R. J., & Pennington, B. F. (1996) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565649609540642 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
Identification and Description of New Tests of Executive Functioning in Children
Archibald, S. J., & Kerns, K. A. (1999) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1076/chin.5.2.115.3167 · Cited by 360 · see citing works
Self-citationVentral frontal deficits in psychopathy: Neuropsychological test findings
Lapierre, D., Braun, C. M. J., & Hodgins, S. (1995) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(94)00110-b · Cited by 356 · see citing works
The Flexible Item Selection Task (FIST): A Measure of Executive Function in Preschoolers
Jacques, S., & Zelazo, P. D. (2001) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2003_2 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
Using Path Analysis to Understand Executive Function Organization in Preschool Children
Senn, T. E., Espy, K. A., & Kaufmann, P. M. (2004) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2601_5 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Gerardi‐Caulton, G. (2000) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00134 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Measuring Executive Functions in Childhood: Problems and Solutions?
Hughes, C., & Graham, A. (2002) · Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1111/1475-3588.00024 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Dalen, L., Daley, D., & Remington, B. (2002) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2103_3 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Development of attention and distractibility in the first 4 years of life.
Ruff, H. A., & Capozzoli, M. C. (2003) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.5.877 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Espy, K. A., Kaufmann, P. M., McDiarmid, M. D., & Glisky, M. L. (1999) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1006/brcg.1999.1117 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Links Between Systems of Inhibition From Infancy to Preschool Years
Aksan, N. S., & Kochanska, G. (2004) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00752.x · Cited by 190 · see citing works
New Procedures to Assess Executive Functions in Preschool Children*
Espy, K. A., Kaufmann, P. M., Glisky, M. L., & McDiarmid, M. D. (2001) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1076/clin.15.1.46.1908 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Partiot, A., Vérin, M., Pillon, B., Teixeira-Ferreira, C., Agid, Y., & Dubois, B. (1996) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(95)00143-3 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
The differentiation of activity in infants' exploration of objects.
Ruff, H. A., Saltarelli, L. M., Capozzoli, M. C., & Dubiner, K. (1992) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.851 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Executive function and children's understanding of false belief: how specific is the relation?
Müller, U., Zelazo, P. D., & Imrisek, S. (2004) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2004.12.004 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Self-citationComputerized games to study the development of attention in childhood
Berger, A., Jones, L. B., Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (2000) · Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers · doi:10.3758/bf03207798 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Streissguth, A. P., Bookstein, F. L., Sampson, P. D., & Barr, H. M. (1995) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579400006611 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Richards, J. E., & Cronise, K. (2000) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00170 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Brewer, V. R., Fletcher, J. M., Hiscock, M., & Davidson, K. C. (2001) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037//0894-4105.15.2.185 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Developmental changes in attention: the effects of endogenous cueing and of distractors
Goldberg, M. C., Maurer, D. M., & Lewis, T. L. (2001) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00166 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Barkley, R. A. (2004) · Cited by 65 · see citing works
The development of exogenous orienting: mechanisms of control
Wainwright, A., & Bryson, S. E. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-0965(02)00002-4 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Nassauer, K. W., & Halperin, J. M. (2003) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617703910034 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Brewer, V. R., Fletcher, J. M., Hiscock, M., et al. (2001) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.15.2.185 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Covert orienting and focusing of attention in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
McDonald, S., Bennett, K. M. B., Chambers, H., & Castiello, U. (1999) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(98)00078-5 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Covert orienting to exogenous and endogenous cues in children with spina bifida
Dennis, M., Edelstein, K., Copeland, K., Frederick, J. A., Francis, D. J., Hetherington, R., Blaser, S. E., Kramer, L. A., Drake, J. M., Brandt, M. E., et al. (2004) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.08.012 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Max, J. E., Manes, F. F., Robertson, B., Mathews, K. D., Fox, P. T., & Lancaster, J. L. (2005) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000156661.38576.0f · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Developmental changes in the effectiveness of stimulus intensity on infant visual attention.
Ruff, H. A., & Turkewitz, G. (1975) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.11.6.705 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Attention function after childhood stroke
Max, J. E., Robin, D. A., Taylor, H. G., Yeates, K. O., Fox, P. T., Lancaster, J. L., Manes, F. F., Mathews, K. D., & Hula, S. N. A. (2004) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617704107066 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Changing Role of Stimulus Intensity as a Determinant of Infants' Attention
Ruff, H. A., & Turkewitz, G. (1979) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1979.48.3.815 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Morrison, F. J. (1982) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(82)90041-8 · Cited by 20 · cited 4× · see citing works
“A number of researchers have suggested that during the preschool period there is a transition point at which attentional engagement becomes more endogenous and less exogenous (e.g. Goldberg, Maurer, & Lewis, 2001; Morrison, 1982; Ruff & Capozzoli, 2003; Ruff, Weisberg, Lawson, & Capozzoli, 1995, as cited by Ruff & Rot…”
InfluentialThe Development of Orienting to Locations and Objects
Posner, M. I., Rothbart, M. K., Thomas-Thrapp, L., & Gerardi, G. (1998) · Visual Attention · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195126938.003.0010 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Murphy‐Berman, V., & Wright, G. F. (1987) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1987.64.3c.1139 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Assessing Executive Function in Preschoolers
Anderson, P. J., & Reidy, N. (2012) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-012-9220-3 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Measuring the development of inhibitory control: The challenge of heterotypic continuity
Petersen, I. T., Hoyniak, C. P., McQuillan, M. E., Bates, J. E., & Staples, A. D. (2016) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2016.02.001 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Sustained attention and age predict inhibitory control during early childhood
Reck, S. G., & Hund, A. M. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.07.010 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Miller, M. R., Müller, U., Giesbrecht, G. F., Carpendale, J. I. M., & Kerns, K. A. (2013) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2012.10.005 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Self-citationAttentional networks efficiency in preterm children
Pizzo, R., Urben, S., der Linden, M. V., Borradori-Tolsa, C., Freschi, M., Forcada‐Guex, M., Hüppi, P. S., & Barisnikov, K. (2009) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617709991032 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Gardiner, E., Hutchison, S. M., Müller, U., Kerns, K. A., & Iarocci, G. (2017) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2017.1290139 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationHow attention factors into executive function in preschool children
Deodhar, A., & Bertenthal, B. I. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1146101 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Development of endogenous orienting of attention in school-age children
Leclercq, V., & Siéroff, É. (2012) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2012.682568 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Kostyrka‐Allchorne, K., Cooper, N. R., Kennett, S., Nestler, S., & Simpson, A. (2019) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2019.1630628 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Ristic, J., & Enns, J. T. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy205 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Two types of behavioral inhibition: Relations to effortful control and attention in school children
Geng, F., Hu, Y., Wang, Y., & Chen, F. (2011) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.09.005 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The Development of Self-Regulation: A Neuropsychological Perspective
Hrabok, M., & Kerns, K. A. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327694.003.0006 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationHoyer, R. S., Pakulak, E., Bidet‐Caulet, A., & Karns, C. M. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105584 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Attention skills and looking to television in children from low income families
Brown, D. D., Weatherholt, T. N., & Burns, B. M. (2010) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2010.04.003 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Hoyer, R. S., Pakulak, E., Bidet‐Caulet, A., & Karns, C. M. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.04.06.438161 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Historical Background of the Study of Temperament and New Perspectives on Assessment
Putnam, S. P., Gartstein, M. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199837182.013.6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Sustained Attention in Infants and Children
Laurie‐Rose, C., Pempek, T. A., & Curtindale, L. M. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511973017.058 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Kunita, K., Fujiwara, K., Kiyota, N., Yaguchi, C., & Kiyota, T. (2018) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-017-0161-7 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Relationships between physical activity and motor and cognitive function in young children
Fisher, A. (2009) · Enlighten: Theses (The University of Glasgow) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Deja, M., Zając-Lamparska, L., & Trempała, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1499924 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Randall, K. D. (2011) · UVic’s Research and Learning Repository (University of Victoria) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-regulation in early childhood: insights from brain research
Yang, O. (2011) · Korean Journal of Early Childhood Education · doi:10.18023/kjece.2011.31.6.021 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Psychodiagnostics of the risk for developmental delay in preschool children
Nasledov, A., Александрович, М. С., Tkacheva, L. O., & Zashchirinskai, O. (2019) · doi:10.15862/43mnnpm19 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Weatherholt, T. N. (2011) · doi:10.18297/etd/1539 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Development of Multitasking in Children Aged 7-11
Adel, J. M. V. (2007) · UVic’s Research and Learning Repository (University of Victoria)
Emotion regulation dynamics in empathy in young children
Israeli-Ran, L., Kadosh-Laor, T., & Uzefovsky, F. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-26201-y
Walczak‐Kozłowska, T., Mańkowska, A., & Harciarek, M. (2026) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjdp.70046
- Authors
- Hrabok, M., Kerns, K. A., & Müller, U.
- Affiliations
- University of Victoria (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Hrabok, Marianne
- ORCID
- Hrabok, Marianne
- Venue
- Child Neuropsychology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2007-09-05
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 408-421
- ISSN
- 0929-7049 (ISSN-L)
- 1744-4136
- OpenAlex
- W2050514037
- Cited by
- 29
- References
- 64
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 2 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 0.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Child Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- attentional networks, sustained attention, orienting, executive attention, inhibition, working memory, preschool children, attention development, age differences
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Arousal, Attention, Child Behavior, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Female, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Orientation, Psychomotor Performance, Task Performance and Analysis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
