Assessing Executive Function in Preschoolers

May combine two claims.

Research demonstrates significant improvement in reaction/response time during the preschool period and that response speed varies as a function of complexity.

“Further, there are well-established approaches for assessing information processing speed, with research demonstrating significant improvement in reaction/response time during the preschool period and that response speed varies as a function of complexity (Kiselev, Espy, & Sheffield, 2009).”

• cites Kiselev, Espy, & Sheffield, 2009Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Anti-imitation tasks are suitable across the preschool age range, although young 3-year-olds may struggle.

“These anti-imitation tasks are suitable across the preschool age range, although young 3-year-olds may struggle.”

• cites Diamond & Taylor, 1996 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Carlson, 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites C. Hughes, 1998Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Self-ordered searching tasks are used with preschoolers and require information, usually visual-spatial, to be maintained and updated in short-term memory.

“Another working memory paradigm used with preschoolers is self-ordered searching tasks, which requires information, usually visual-spatial, to be maintained and updated in short-term memory.”

• cites Hongwanishkul, Happaney, Lee, & Zelazo, 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites M. T. Willoughby, Wirth, & Blair, 2011 sourceNot checked yet

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On the Bear/Dragon task, only about half of young 3-year-olds (< 31⁄2 yrs) can resist responding to the Dragon puppet; this increases to 75% for older 3-year-olds (> 31⁄2 yrs), and by age 5 most children successfully complete the task.

“On the Bear/Dragon task (Go/No-Go task), only about half of young 3-year-olds (< 3½ yrs) are able to resist responding to the instructions of the Dragon puppet, however this increases to 75% for older 3-year-olds (> 3½ yrs) and by age 5 years most children are successfully completing this task (Carlson, 2005).”

• cites Carlson, 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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Delayed Alternation is a task used to assess working memory in young children and can be administered to toddlers as well as throughout the preschool period.

“Delayed Alternation is a task used to assess working memory in young children, and can be administered to toddlers as well as throughout the preschool period (K. A. Espy, Kaufmann, McDiarmid, & Glisky, 1999).”

• cites K. A. Espy, Kaufmann, McDiarmid, & Glisky, 1999 sourceNot checked yet

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Even 4- and 5-year-olds struggled to remain still on the No-Go items of the Simon Says task, demonstrating that task context makes some behaviors more difficult to resist than others.

“In contrast, even 4-and 5-year-olds struggled to remain still on the No-Go items of the Simon Says task, demonstrating that the context of the task makes some behaviors more difficult to resist than others.”

May combine two claims.

The Tower of London is generally considered too difficult for preschoolers; less than half of a 4-year-old sample understood task requirements despite extensive training.

“This task is generally considered too difficult for preschoolers, as demonstrated by Luciana and Nelson (1998) who found that less than half of their 4-year-old sample understood task requirements despite extensive training.”

• cites Luciana & Nelson, 1998 sourceNot checked yet

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On the Shape School Inhibit condition, accuracy improved only marginally for children aged 3 to 5 years, but speed increased dramatically during this period.

“Accuracy of responding improved only marginally for children aged between 3 and 5 years on the Inhibit condition (Go/No-Go) on the Shape School test, but speed increased dramatically during this developmental period (K. A. Espy, Kaufmann, & Glisky, 2001;K. Espy, 1997).”

• cites K. A. Espy, Kaufmann, & Glisky, 2001Not checked yet

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• cites K. Espy, 1997 sourceNot checked yet

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The child needs to inhibit a previously applied behavior to enable fluent switching; otherwise perseverative errors will be observed.

“The child needs to inhibit a previously applied behavior to enable fluent switching, otherwise perseverative errors will be observed (Best & Miller, 2010).”

• cites Best & Miller, 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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Carlson et al. (2005) showed continued maturation of inhibitory control across 3 to 5 years on delayed gratification tasks, but performance varied and the discrepancy may be explained by the intrinsic value of the gift.

“While Carlson et al (2005) also showed continued maturation of inhibitory control across 3 to 5 years on delayed gratification tasks, performance again varied and the discrepancy may be explained by the intrinsic value of the gift.”

• cites Carlson et al., 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There is enormous inter-individual variability in developmental trajectories, particularly obvious in young children.

“Following is a brief summary of developmental trajectories for attentional control, cognitive flexibility and goal setting domains, however it is important to note that there is enormous inter-individual variability in developmental trajectories and this is particularly obvious in young children.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Dimensional Change Card Sort task has been used extensively to evaluate shifting attention in preschoolers.

“The Dimensional Change Card Sort task has been used extensively to evaluate shifting attention in preschoolers (P.D. Zelazo, Muller, Frye, & Marcovitch, 2003;P. D. Zelazo, 2006).”

• cites P.D. Zelazo, Muller, Frye, & Marcovitch, 2003Not checked yet

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• cites P. D. Zelazo, 2006 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Developmental spurts are commonly observed in individual children and can also be observed on a population level.

“Developmental spurts are commonly observed in individual children, and can also be observed on a population level (P.Anderson, 2002).”

• cites P.Anderson, 2002Not checked yet

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The inhibition trial of the Shape School is considered appropriate for preschoolers aged 3 years and older, while the switch and combined trials are considered appropriate for children aged 3 years 6 months and older.

“The inhibition trial is considered appropriate for preschoolers aged 3-years and older, while the more complex switch and combined (switch & inhibit) trials are considered appropriate for children aged 3:6 years and older.”

• cites K.Espy, 1997 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites K. A. Espy, Bull, Martin, & Stroup, 2006Not checked yet

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Accuracy of switching on Trails-P improves between 3 and 5 years of age, although preschoolers generally make few errors on this task.

“Accuracy of switching on Trails-P also improves between 3-and 5-years of age, although generally speaking preschoolers make few errors on this task.”

• cites K. A. Espy & Cwik, 2004Not checked yet

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Very few 3-year-olds can correctly reverse the sequence of three digits, but by age 5 most children have this capacity.

“For example, very few 3-year-olds are able to correctly reverse the sequence of three digits but by 5-years of age most children have this capacity (Carlson, 2005).”

• cites Carlson, 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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Some children as young as 3 years apply an alternating search strategy at least some of the time, but some older children (e.g., 5 years) struggle with this concept.

“Some children as young as 3-years apply an alternating search strategy at least some of the time, however there are also some older children (e.g.5-years) who struggle with this concept (K. A. Espy, Kaufmann, McDiarmid, & Glisky, 1999).”

• cites K. A. Espy, Kaufmann, McDiarmid, & Glisky, 1999 sourceNot checked yet

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Children younger than 4 years get very few trials correct on the Tower of Hanoi, and a significant increase in performance is observed between 3 and 4 years.

“It should be noted however, that children younger than 4-years of age get very few trials correct and a significant increase in performance is observed between 3-and 4-years.”

• cites K. A. Espy, Kaufmann, & Glisky, 2001Not checked yet

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• cites Welsh, Pennington, & Groisser, 1991 sourceNot checked yet

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The developmental trajectories for the Day-Night and Hand Tapping tasks differ, even though both require retention of two rules and inhibition of a dominant response.

“Thus, the developmental trajectories for the Day-Night and Hand Tapping tasks differ, even though they both require the retention of two rules and inhibition of a dominant response (Diamond & Taylor, 1996).”

• cites Diamond & Taylor, 1996 sourceNot checked yet

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The switch condition of the Shape School is successfully completed by most 4-year-olds; while accuracy increases slightly, improved performance in older preschoolers is predominantly reflected in better switching fluency and reduced time to complete the task.

“The switch condition of the Shape School is successfully completed by most 4-year-olds, and while accuracy increases slightly, improved performance in older preschoolers is predominantly reflected in better switching fluency and reduced time needed to complete the task (K.Espy, 1997).”

• cites K.Espy, 1997 sourceNot checked yet

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Children aged 5 years and older performed well on the Day-Night test in terms of both accuracy and speed.

“In contrast, children aged 5 years and older performed well both in terms of accuracy and speed.”

• cites Gerstadt et al., 1994 sourceNot checked yet

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On average, children as young as 31⁄2 years can get nearly two-thirds of trials correct on the Luria hand tapping test, but performance improves significantly throughout the preschool period in both accuracy and speed.

“On average children as young as 3½ years are able to get nearly two-thirds of the trials correct on the Luria hand tapping test, but performance improves significantly throughout the preschool period both in terms of accuracy and speed (Diamond & Taylor, 1996).”

• cites Diamond & Taylor, 1996 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Enormous development of inhibitory control is observed between 3 and 6 years of age, with continued maturation beyond the preschool period.

“In summary, enormous development of inhibitory control is observed between 3-to 6years of age with continued maturation beyond the preschool period.”

May combine two claims.

Younger preschoolers tend to make their first perseverative error earlier than older preschoolers on the Six Boxes test, although the total number of searches needed to find all six boxes decreases only marginally with increasing age.

“Consistent with these findings, younger preschoolers tend to make their first perseverative error prior to older preschoolers on the Six Boxes test, although the total number of searches needed to find all six boxes decreases only marginally with increasing age (Diamond, Prevor, Callender, & Druin, 1997).”

• cites Diamond, Prevor, Callender, & Druin, 1997Not checked yet

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Luciana and Nelson (1998) reported that 4-year-olds make more perseverative errors than older preschoolers on a computerized self-ordered search task, which likely reflects less mature working memory.

“With an older sample and a computerized self-ordered search task, Luciana and Nelson (1998) reported that 4-year-olds make more perseverative errors than older preschoolers, which likely reflects less mature working memory.”

• cites Luciana & Nelson, 1998 sourceNot checked yet

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Hongwanishkul and colleagues (2005) reported significant developmental increments between 3 and 5 years on their Self-ordered Pointing task, with a particular spurt between 3 and 4 years.

“Hongwanishkul and colleagues (2005) reported significant developmental increments between 3 to 5-years of age with their Self-ordered Pointing task, with a particular spurt observed between 3-and 4-years.”

• cites Hongwanishkul et al., 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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All preschool age groups perform better at the start than at the end of the Day-Night test, suggesting the task requires considerable cognitive effort that is difficult to sustain.

“Interestingly, all preschool age groups perform better at the start than at the end of the Day-Night test, suggesting that the task requires considerable cognitive effort that is difficult to sustain (Gerstadt, Hong, & Diamond, 1994).”

• cites Gerstadt, Hong, & Diamond, 1994 sourceNot checked yet

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While 3-year-olds can complete the switch condition on the Trails-P, they are substantially slower than 4-year-olds and require almost twice the time needed by 5-year-olds.

“While 3-year-olds can complete the switch condition on the Trails-P, they are substantially slower in completing the task than 4-year-olds and require almost twice the time needed by 5-year-olds (K. A. Espy & Cwik, 2004).”

• cites K. A. Espy & Cwik, 2004Not checked yet

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On the Day-Night test, the most significant improvement in accuracy occurred between 41⁄2 and 5 years, although performance gains continued to age 7 years.

“In terms of accuracy, the most significant improvement in performance was observed between 4½ and 5 years, although performance gains continued to age 7 years.”

• cites Gerstadt et al., 1994 sourceNot checked yet

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Children younger than 41⁄2 years were slow on the Day-Night test, while average latency for older age groups did not differ.

“Children younger than 4½ years were slow on the Day-Night test, while the average latency for the older age groups did not differ.”

• cites Gerstadt et al., 1994 sourceNot checked yet

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On the Object Classification Task for Children, 3-year-olds struggle to identify a common feature within a group of six objects, but children aged 4 years and older find it relatively easy to sort objects according to a single dimension.

“Using the Object Classification Task for Children 3-year-olds struggle to identify a common feature within a group of six objects (i.e.toys), but in contrast, children aged 4-years and older find it relatively easy to sort different objects according to a single dimension.”

• cites Smidts, Jacobs, & Anderson, 2004Not checked yet

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Three-year-olds struggle to shift sorting categories on the Dimensional Change Card Sort test, but this perseverative behavior is far less common in older 4-year-olds.

“In terms of shifting attention, 3-year-olds really struggle to shift sorting categories on the Dimensional Change Card Sort test, but this perseverative behavior is far less common in older 4-year-olds (Carlson, 2005).”

• cites Carlson, 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some preschool factor analytic studies have revealed a single latent variable.

“certain preschool executive function factor analytic studies have revealed a single latent variable”

• cites Hughes, Ensor, Wilson & Graham, 2009 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Wiebe, Espy & Charak, 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Executive function processes are inter-related and can be conceptualized as an integrated supervisory or control system.

“while executive function may comprise several distinct processes, they are inter-related and could still be conceptualized, and referred to, as an integrated supervisory or control system”

• cites Alexander & Stuss, 2000 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Stuss & Alexander, 2000 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The single latent variable finding in preschool studies is at least partly related to the measures and variables included and does not necessarily challenge the view that executive function includes distinct components.

“although this is at least partly related to the measures and variables included in the analysis and does not necessarily challenge the view that executive function includes distinct components”

• cites Hughes et al., 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Executive Control System conceptualizes executive function as an overall control system comprising four distinct domains: attentional control, cognitive flexibility, goal setting, and information processing.

“The Executive Control System conceptualizes executive function as an overall control system that comprises four distinct domains, attentional control, cognitive flexibility, goal setting, and information processing”

• cites P.J. Anderson, 2010Not checked yet

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• cites P. Anderson, 2002Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

During early childhood, primary cortical areas and association areas have high levels of synaptic density and undergo a dynamic period of synaptic elimination at differing trajectories.

“During early childhood primary cortical areas such as the auditory and visual cortex, and association areas such as the medial prefrontal cortex, have high levels of synaptic density and undergo a dynamic period of synaptic elimination at differing trajectories”

• cites Huttenlocher, 1990Not checked yet

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• cites Huttenlocher & Dabholkar, 1997Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Early childhood is a period of rapid brain development.

“Given that cognitive processes are emerging and developing at a rapid rate in early childhood, it comes as no surprise that this is also a period of rapid brain development”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Executive function develops at an unprecedented rate during the preschool period.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Increasing white matter volume with age is linear in many regions across the brain from age 5.

“Taki and colleagues (2012) examined white matter volume change in children from age 5, and demonstrated that increasing white matter volume with age is linear in many regions across the brain.”

• cites Taki et al., 2012Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

During infancy and early childhood, total white matter is increasing in volume at a greater rate than total gray matter.

“During infancy and early childhood, total white matter is increasing in volume at a greater rate than total gray matter”

• cites Matsuzawa et al., 2001Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Total brain volume increases and reaches 95% of its adult size by age 6 years.

“total brain volume increases and reaches 95% of its adult size by age 6 years”

• cites Lenroot & Giedd, 2006Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Executive dysfunction is commonly observed in young children and has been reported in many developmental and acquired CNS disorders including ADHD, autism, traumatic brain injury, prematurity, and phenylketonuria.

“Executive dysfunction is a common observation in young children and has been reported in many developmental and acquired disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) including attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder”

• cites Barkley, 1997 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Ozonoff, Pennington, & Rogers, 1991 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites V. Anderson, Godfrey, Rosenfeld, & Catroppa, 2012Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The increase in white matter volume may be related to an increase in myelination.

“The increase in white matter volume may be related to an increase in myelination”

• cites Tsujimoto, 2008Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The frontal lobes develop much later in childhood and adolescence than other brain regions, but infancy and early childhood still sees rapid growth in this anterior area.

“A widely held view in brain development is that the frontal lobes develop much later in childhood and adolescence than other brain regions, and although this region undergoes a period of protracted development, infancy and early childhood still sees rapid growth in this anterior area of the brain.”

May combine two claims.

The integrity of the prefrontal cortex is necessary but not sufficient for intact executive functioning.

“it may be argued that the integrity of the prefrontal cortex is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for intact executive functioning”

• cites Della Sala, Gray, Spinnler, & Trivelli, 1998Not checked yet

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The four domains of the Executive Control System depend on similar prefrontal networks and exhibit comparable developmental trajectories.

“thus are dependent on similar prefrontal networks, and they exhibit comparable developmental trajectories”

• cites P. Anderson, 2002Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cognitive development is thought to reflect brain development.

“Cognitive development is thought to reflect brain development”

• cites Casey, Giedd, & Thomas, 2000Not checked yet

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• cites Casey, Tottenham, Liston, & Durston, 2005Not checked yet

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Individual tracts present in the frontal white matter are identifiable early in the post-natal period and continue to develop throughout the preschool years.

“Individual tracts that are present in the frontal white matter are identifiable early in the post-natal period and continue to develop throughout the preschool years”

• cites Hermoye et al., 2006Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

These concomitant changes are partly explained by an increase in myelination of the lower cortical layers with age, causing both regional brain expansion and apparent cortical thinning.

“These concomitant changes have been explained as partly reflecting an increase in myelination of the lower cortical layers with age, causing both regional brain expansion and apparent cortical thinning”

• cites Sowell et al 2004Not checked yet

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From age 3 to age 4, children improve their performance on a conceptual switching task and show a concomitant increase in activation in the inferior prefrontal region.

“Moriguchi and Hiraki (2011) demonstrated using near infra-red spectroscopy that from age 3 to age 4, children improve their performance on a conceptual switching task, and show a concomitant increase in activation in the inferior prefrontal region.”

• cites Moriguchi & Hiraki, 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The maturation of white matter, including myelination and increasing complexity of neural circuits, is thought to support the development of cognitive functions in addition to changes to the gray matter.

“The maturation of white matter, including myelination and the increasing complexity of neural circuits, are thought to support the development of cognitive functions in addition to changes to the gray matter”

• cites Johnson, 2001Not checked yet

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• cites Tau & Peterson, 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Executive dysfunction may not always reflect prefrontal pathology and may instead reflect compromised neural networks across the brain.

“executive dysfunction may not always reflect prefrontal pathology and instead reflect compromised neural networks across the brain.”

May combine two claims.

From age 4, white matter volume increases steadily, but gray matter volumes in the frontal and parietal regions increase and peak during mid-childhood before reducing.

“from age 4, white matter volume increases steadily, but gray matter volumes in the frontal and parietal regions increase and peak during mid-childhood before reducing.”

• cites Giedd et al., 1999Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Myelination of the major cerebral tracts begins in the post-natal period, with greatest development in the first two years of life, continuing throughout childhood and adolescence.

“Myelination of the major cerebral tracts begins in the post-natal period, with greatest development in the first two years of life, continuing throughout childhood and adolescence”

• cites Gao et al., 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Paus et al., 2001Not checked yet

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Despite cortical thinning, the prefrontal region expands in size with age, more so than areas surrounding the central sulcus or the posterior medial surface.

“Despite this cortical thinning, the prefrontal region expands in size with age, more so than areas surrounding the central sulcus or the posterior medial surface”

• cites Sowell et al., 2004Not checked yet

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Different executive processes are supported by widespread neural circuits that mature and change with age.

“Different executive processes are supported by widespread neural circuits that mature and change with age”

• cites Tau & Peterson, 2010Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Maturation of neural networks involves a move from interconnected local regions to connectivity of distributed regions that work together to subserve the same function, and this may mirror maturation of cognitive skills.

“the maturation of neural networks involves a move from interconnected local regions, to the connectivity of distributed regions that work together to subserve the same function, and this may mirror maturation of cognitive skills”

• cites Fair et al., 2009Not checked yet

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Minimal learning effects were observed on second testing of certain preschool executive function measures; slightly poorer performance was observed and interpreted as fatigue.

“minimal learning effects were observed; instead slightly poorer performance was observed on second testing which was interpreted to reflect fatigue”

• cites Beck, Schaefer, Pang, & Carlson, 2011Not checked yet

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Determining the underlying reason for sub-optimal performance on executive function tasks can be difficult, limiting the capacity to differentiate specific cognitive deficits.

“determining the underlying reason for sub-optimal performance can be difficult, limiting the capacity to differentiate specific cognitive deficits.”

May combine two claims.

The novelty factor and level of complexity of adult-derived tests are likely to be greater in children.

“the novelty factor and level of complexity of such tests are likely to be greater in children”

• cites V. Anderson, 1998 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Baron, 2004Not checked yet

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• cites J. M. Fletcher & Taylor, 1984 sourceNot checked yet

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Test-retest reliability was good for working memory and planning tasks but moderate to poor for response inhibition tasks.

“a recent report showed that test-retest reliability was good for working memory and planning tasks but moderate to poor for response inhibition tasks”

• cites Muller, Kerns, & Konkin, 2012 sourceNot checked yet

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Established measures do not necessarily assess what they are claimed to assess, and purported measures of executive function are unlikely to be sensitive to impairments in all domains of executive function.

“established measures do not necessarily assess what they are claimed to assess (Baron, 2004), and purported measures of executive function are unlikely to be sensitive to impairments in all domains of executive function.”

• cites Baron, 2004Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Summary scores may mask personal and situational factors that could explain impaired performance, especially for young children who are more distractible, have shorter attention spans, require greater novelty, and have less awareness of testing requirements.

“Summary scores are often used to assess performance but these may mask personal and situational factors that could explain impaired performance, especially for young children who are more distractible, have shorter attention spans, require greater novelty and have less awareness of the requirements of the testing situation”

May combine two claims.

Reliability estimates vary across tasks and it may be that assessing certain executive processes may be more stable than others.

“Reliability estimates vary across tasks and it may be that assessing certain executive processes may be more stable than others.”

May combine two claims.

Recent attempts to design measures for preschoolers appreciate the need for age-appropriate or child-friendly measures and have specifically designed tests that are appealing to young children.

“Recent attempts to design measures for preschoolers appreciate the need for age appropriate or child friendly measures, and have specifically designed tests that are appealing to young children”

• cites C. Hughes, 2011 sourceNot checked yet

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Other papers reveal reasonable reliability for most experimental tests with estimates consistent with those reported with older childhood and adult populations and published subtests in the NEPSY battery.

“Other papers reveal reasonable reliability for most experimental tests with estimates consistent with those reported with older childhood and adult populations”

• cites M. Willoughby & Blair, 2011Not checked yet

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• cites K. A. Espy, Bull, Kaiser, Martin, & Banet, 2010Not checked yet

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A major challenge is the attainment of good norms because determining age-appropriate behavior is very difficult when children are young and developing at a rapid rate.

“A major challenge, however, is the attainment of good norms as determining age appropriate behavior is very difficult when children are young and developing at a rapid rate”

• cites Baron, 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

There is a strong possibility that adult-derived tests tap different skills and neural networks in children or require greater cognitive resources.

“there is a strong possibility that these tests tap different skills (and neural networks) in children or at least require greater cognitive resources”

• cites V. Anderson, 1998 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Baron, 2004Not checked yet

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• cites J. M. Fletcher & Taylor, 1984 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Including rewards of different value can increase the complexity of a delay of gratification task.

“Including rewards of different value can increase the complexity of the task.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Executive dysfunction can present in many forms, and impairment in one domain does not necessarily imply impairment in other executive domains.

“Executive dysfunction can present in many forms, and impairment in one domain does not necessarily imply impairment in other executive domains.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The NEPSY-II includes a self-control subtest called Statue, which does not involve delay of gratification.

“The NEPSY-II includes a self-control subtest, called Statue, which does not involve delay of gratification (Korkman, Kirk, & Kemp, 2007).”

• cites Korkman, Kirk, & Kemp, 2007Not checked yet

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During assessments, examiners generally provide children with support and encouragement, initiate activities, provide structure, and help keep the child on task, and it has been suggested they act as the frontal lobes of the child.

“during assessments examiners generally provide children with support and encouragement, initiate activities, provide structure, and help to keep the child on task”

• cites V. Anderson, 1998 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Lezak, Howieson, Bigler, & Tranel, 2012Not checked yet

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• cites Stuss & Alexander, 2000 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Factors that may influence task complexity and age appropriateness include the stimuli used, the speed of stimulus presentation, and the response modality (verbal or motor).

“Factors that may influence complexity, and therefore age appropriateness, include the stimuli used, the speed that stimuli are presented, and the response modality (verbal or motor).”

The quote only partly states this claim.

The discrepancy between traditional executive function measures and real life behavior may also reflect the assessment environment, which is generally a quiet, one-on-one, structured setting with minimal distractions and very different to most home, classroom, or social environments.

“This discrepancy may also reflect the assessment environment, which is generally a quiet, one-on-one, structured setting with minimal distractions”

• cites V. Anderson, 1998 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Lezak, Howieson, Bigler, & Tranel, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

General cognitive batteries such as the WPPSI-III, SB5, DAS-II, and KABC-II were not designed specifically to assess executive functioning, but each includes subtests that measure executive processes.

“While these general cognitive batteries were not designed to specifically assess executive functioning, all include subtests that tap executive processes.”

• cites Wechsler, 2002Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Roid, 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Elliott, 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Six Boxes test is an updating working memory task described for use with preschoolers.

“Another updating working memory task described for use with preschoolers is the Six Boxes test (Diamond, Prevor, Callender, & Druin, 1997).”

• cites Diamond, Prevor, Callender, & Druin, 1997Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In Simon Says, the No-Go cue is a verbal statement embedded in the command, whereas in Bear/Dragon the Go and No-Go cues come from different puppets and are easier to differentiate.

“In Simon Says the No-Go cue is a verbal statement embedded with the command, while the Go and No-Go cues in the Bear/Dragon task are commands from different puppets and much easier to differentiate.”

May combine two claims.

Simon Says is more challenging because it involves active imitation, which is difficult for young children to inhibit.

“Simon Says is also more challenging as it involves active imitation, which is difficult for young children to inhibit.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) has a computerized version of self-ordered searching called Spatial Working Memory.

“The Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) has a computerized version of self-ordered searching referred to as Spatial Working Memory.”

• cites Luciana & Nelson, 1998 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Tower of Hanoi is purported to tap planning ability and requires moving three different sized disks across three pegs to achieve a specific configuration.

“This test is purported to tap planning ability, and requires the child to move three different sized disks across three pegs to achieve a specific configuration.”

• cites K. A. Espy, Kaufmann, & Glisky, 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Welsh, Pennington, & Groisser, 1991 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Trails-P is a preschool adaptation of the Trail Making Test and is a measure of switching.

“Trails-P is a preschool adaptation of the child and adult version of the Trail Making Test (K. A. Espy & Cwik, 2004), and is another measure of switching.”

• cites K. A. Espy & Cwik, 2004Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Performance on switching tasks generally requires inhibition to suppress a previously applied rule set and working memory to maintain the alternating rules and when to shift.

“Performance on switching tasks generally requires 1) inhibition to suppress previously applied rule set, and 2) working memory to maintain the alternating rules and when to shift (Chevalier et al., 2012).”

• cites Chevalier et al., 2012 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Good performance on Delayed Alternation requires the capacity to shift search strategy and, for older children, to learn the alternating pattern of the search location.

“In addition to assessing working memory, good performance on the Delayed Alternation requires the capacity to shift search strategy and, for older kids, to learn the alternating pattern of the search location.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The key processes in the cognitive flexibility domain for young children are working memory, switching between response sets, and shifting attention.

“The key processes in the cognitive flexibility domain, especially when assessing young children, are working memory (capacity to update or manipulate information in short-term storage), switching between response sets, and shifting attention.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The ongoing maturation of executive domains and their associated neural networks depends on refinement of other executive and non-executive skills, as well as enhanced coordination and integration of these systems.

“The ongoing maturation of executive domains and their associated neural networks is dependent on refinement of other executive and non-executive skills, as well as the enhanced coordination and integration of these systems.”

May combine two claims.

Young preschoolers have limited impulse control and delay of gratification, and simple Go/No-Go tasks are the most suitable for evaluating their developmental status.

“Young preschoolers have limited impulse control and delay of gratification and simple Go/No-Go tasks are the most suitable for evaluating developmental status.”

May combine two claims.

Problem solving tasks that require forward planning and conceptual reasoning can be administered to preschoolers, and this is potentially worthwhile.

“In summary, problem solving tasks that require forward planning and conceptual reasoning can be administered to preschoolers, and this is potentially worthwhile.”

May combine two claims.

Older preschoolers have greater inhibitory control, and more complex inhibitory control measures are probably necessary to detect subtle impairments in these children.

“Older preschoolers have greater inhibitory control, and more complex inhibitory control measures are probably necessary to detect subtle impairments in these children.”

May combine two claims.

In preschoolers, a working memory intervention improved trained and untrained working memory and attentional control tasks, but not untrained inhibitory control tasks.

“In contrast to children in control conditions, children who received the working memory intervention showed improvements in trained and non-trained working memory tasks as well as in attentional control tasks, but no effects in non-trained inhibitory control tasks.”

• cites Thorell, Lindqvist, Bergman Nutley, Bohlin, & Klingberg, 2009 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Early studies suggest that cognitive training may enhance executive processes and help individuals with impairments.

“However, early studies in this area suggest that cognitive training may be an avenue for enhancing the development of executive processes as well as assisting those who are impaired.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Executive function develops rapidly during the preschool years.

“In conclusion, executive function develops rapidly during the preschool period.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A preschool version of the BRIEF, the BRIEF-P, exists and has parent and preschool/childcare teacher forms.

“A preschool version of the BRIEF is available, called the BRIEF-P (P.K. Isquith, Gioia, & Espy, 2004), with forms for parents and preschool/childcare teachers.”

• cites P.K. Isquith, Gioia, & Espy, 2004 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.