Normal Development of Prefrontal Cortex from Birth to Young Adulthood: Cognitive Functions, Anatomy, and Biochemistry

Executive functions

Diamond, A. (2013) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 · Cited by 13,268 · see citing works

Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten.

Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x · Cited by 3,140 · see citing works

Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework.

Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31 · Cited by 2,695 · see citing works

Cortical inhibitory neurons and schizophrenia

Lewis, D. A., Hashimoto, T., & Volk, D. W. (2005) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1648 · Cited by 2,297 · see citing works

Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching.

Davidson, M. C., Amso, D., Anderson, L. C., & Diamond, A. (2006) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006 · Cited by 2,226 · see citing works

Age-related change in executive function: Developmental trends and a latent variable analysis

Huizinga, M., Dolan, C. V., & van der Molen, M. W. (2006) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.01.010 · Cited by 1,636 · see citing works

Links between behavioral regulation and preschoolers’ literacy, vocabulary, and math skills.

McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L., Jewkes, A. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.947 · Cited by 1,561 · see citing works

The maturing architecture of the brain's default network

Fair, D. A., Cohen, A. L., Dosenbach, N. U. F., Church, J. A., Miezin, F. M., Barch, D. M., Raichle, M. E., Petersen, S. E., & Schlaggar, B. L. (2008) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0800376105 · Cited by 1,314 · see citing works

Immature Frontal Lobe Contributions to Cognitive Control in Children

Bunge, S. A., Dudukovic, N. M., Thomason, M. E., Vaidya, C. J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2002) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(01)00583-9 · Cited by 1,291 · see citing works

Cognition assessment using the NIH Toolbox

Weintraub, S., Dikmen, S. S., Heaton, R. K., Tulsky, D. S., Zelazo, P. D., Bauer, P. J., Carlozzi, N. E., Slotkin, J., Blitz, D., Wallner-Allen, K., et al. (2013) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e3182872ded · Cited by 1,287 · see citing works

Emotion-related self-regulation and its relation to children's maladjustment

Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Eggum, N. D. (2010) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131208 · Cited by 1,259 · see citing works

Bilingual experience and executive functioning in young children

Carlson, S. M., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2008) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00675.x · Cited by 1,052 · see citing works

Exercise and Children’s Intelligence, Cognition, and Academic Achievement

Tomporowski, P. D., Davis, C. L., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2008) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-007-9057-0 · Cited by 874 · see citing works

Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in autism

Hill, E. L. (2004) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2004.01.001 · Cited by 846 · see citing works

Executive Function in Typical and Atypical Development

Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2010) · The Wiley‐Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development · doi:10.1002/9781444325485.ch22 · Cited by 784 · see citing works

Executive functions and school readiness intervention: Impact, moderation, and mediation in the head start REDI program.

Bierman, K. L., Nix, R. L., Greenberg, M. T., Blair, C., & Domitrovich, C. E. (2008) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579408000394 · Cited by 720 · see citing works

Assessment of Hot and Cool Executive Function in Young Children: Age-Related Changes and Individual Differences

Hongwanishkul, D., Happaney, K. R., Lee, W. S. C., & Zelazo, P. D. (2005) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2802_4 · Cited by 654 · see citing works

Progressive increase of frontostriatal brain activation from childhood to adulthood during event-related tasks of cognitive control.

Rubia, K., Smith, A. B., Woolley, J., Nosarti, C., Heyman, I., Taylor, E., & Brammer, M. (2006) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20237 · Cited by 632 · see citing works

Promoting prosocial behavior and self-regulatory skills in preschool children through a mindfulness-based kindness curriculum.

Flook, L., Goldberg, S. B., Pinger, L., & Davidson, R. J. (2015) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038256 · Cited by 560 · see citing works

Family socioeconomic status and child executive functions: the roles of language, home environment, and single parenthood.

Sarsour, K., Sheridan, M., Jutte, D., Nuru-Jeter, A., Hinshaw, S., & Boyce, W. T. (2011) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617710001335 · Cited by 556 · see citing works

Dissecting the neural mechanisms mediating empathy

Decety, J. (2011) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073910374662 · Cited by 521 · see citing works

Putting together phylogenetic and ontogenetic perspectives on empathy

Decety, J., & Svetlova, M. (2012) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2011.05.003 · Cited by 508 · see citing works

Executive and prefrontal dysfunction in unipolar depression: a review of neuropsychological and imaging evidence

Rogers, M. A., Kasai, K., Koji, M., Fukuda, R., Iwanami, A., Nakagome, K., Fukuda, M., & Kato, N. (2004) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2004.05.003 · Cited by 489 · see citing works

Frontostriatal Microstructure Modulates Efficient Recruitment of Cognitive Control

Liston, C., Watts, R., Tottenham, N., Davidson, M. C., Niogi, S., Ulug, A. M., & Casey, B. J. (2006) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhj003 · Cited by 477 · see citing works

Developmental Changes in Cognitive Control through Adolescence

Luna, B. (2009) · Advances in Child Development and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0065-2407(09)03706-9 · Cited by 419 · see citing works

Attention-deficit disorder (attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder without hyperactivity): A neurobiologically and behaviorally distinct disorder from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (with hyperactivity)

DIAMOND, A. (2005) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579405050388 · Cited by 428 · see citing works

Development of hot and cool executive function during the transition to adolescence

Prencipe, A., Kesek, A., Cohen, J., Lamm, C., Lewis, M. D., & Zelazo, P. D. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.008 · Cited by 433 · see citing works

Atypical attentional networks and the emergence of autism

Keehn, B., Müller, R.-A., & Townsend, J. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.11.014 · Cited by 412 · see citing works

Bilingualism across the lifespan: the rise and fall of inhibitory control

Bialystok, E., Martin, M. M., & Viswanathan, M. (2005) · International Journal of Bilingualism · doi:10.1177/13670069050090010701 · Cited by 398 · see citing works

Stress and the development of self-regulation in context

Blair, C. (2010) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2010.00145.x · Cited by 379 · see citing works

Analogy and Relational Reasoning

Holyoak, K. J. (2012) · The Oxford Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734689.013.0013 · Cited by 394 · see citing works

Which Penguin Is This? Attributing False Beliefs About Object Identity at 18 Months

Scott, R. M., & Baillargeon, R. (2009) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01324.x · Cited by 352 · see citing works

A unitary executive function predicts intelligence in children

Brydges, C. R., Reid, C. L., Fox, A. M., & Anderson, M. (2012) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2012.05.006 · Cited by 351 · see citing works

Links between theory of mind and executive function in young children with autism: Clues to developmental primacy.

Pellicano, E. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.974 · Cited by 352 · see citing works

Executive functions for reading and writing in typical literacy development and dyslexia

Altemeier, L. E., Abbott, R. D., & Berninger, V. W. (2008) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803390701562818 · Cited by 350 · see citing works

Changes and challenges in 20 years of research into the development of executive functions

Hughes, C. (2011) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.736 · Cited by 347 · see citing works

Demographic and familial predictors of early executive function development: Contribution of a person-centered perspective.

Rhoades, B. L., Greenberg, M. T., Lanza, S. T., & Blair, C. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.08.004 · Cited by 295 · see citing works

The development of regulatory functions from birth to 5 years: insights from premature infants

Feldman, R. (2009) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01278.x · Cited by 294 · see citing works

Global–local and trail-making tasks by monolingual and bilingual children: Beyond inhibition.

Bialystok, E. (2010) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015466 · Cited by 295 · see citing works

The Prefrontal Cortex: Functional Neural Development During Early Childhood

Tsujimoto, S. (2008) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858408316002 · Cited by 291 · see citing works

Early neglect is associated with alterations in white matter integrity and cognitive functioning

Hanson, J. L., Adluru, N., Chung, M. K., Alexander, A. L., Davidson, R. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2013) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12069 · Cited by 276 · see citing works

Lifespan Alterations of Basal Dendritic Trees of Pyramidal Neurons in the Human Prefrontal Cortex: A Layer-Specific Pattern

Petanjek, Z., Judas, M., Kostovic, I., & Uylings, H. B. M. (2008) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhm124 · Cited by 273 · see citing works

Frontostriatal connectivity and its role in cognitive control in parent-child dyads with ADHD

Casey, B. J., Epstein, J. N., Buhle, J., Liston, C., Davidson, M. C., Tonev, S. T., Spicer, J., Niogi, S., Millner, A. J., Reiss, A., et al. (2007) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.06101754 · Cited by 258 · see citing works

A developmental fMRI study of self‐regulatory control

Marsh, R., Zhu, H., Schultz, R. T., Quackenbush, G., Royal, J., Skudlarski, P., & Peterson, B. S. (2006) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20225 · Cited by 249 · see citing works

The emergence and basis of endogenous attention in infancy and early childhood

Colombo, J., & Cheatham, C. L. (2006) · Advances in Child Development and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0065-2407(06)80010-8 · Cited by 238 · see citing works

Memory Maintenance and Inhibitory Control Differentiate from Early Childhood to Adolescence

Shing, Y. L., Lindenberger, U., Diamond, A., Li, S.-C., & Davidson, M. C. (2010) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2010.508546 · Cited by 239 · see citing works

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Executive Function Difficulties in Children: A Systematic Review

Lund, J. I., Toombs, E., Radford, A., Boles, K., & Mushquash, C. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104485 · Cited by 211 · see citing works

Switching between spatial stimulus–response mappings: a developmental study of cognitive flexibility

Crone, E. A., Richard Ridderinkhof, K., Worm, M., Somsen, R. J. M., & Van Der Molen, M. W. (2004) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00365.x · Cited by 197 · see citing works

Functional brain connectivity at rest changes after working memory training

Jolles, D. D., van Buchem, M. A., Crone, E. A., & Rombouts, S. A. R. B. (2013) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.21444 · Cited by 183 · see citing works

Mutual influences between child emotion regulation and parent–child reciprocity support development across the first 10 years of life: implications for developmental psychopathology.

Feldman, R. (2015) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579415000656 · Cited by 181 · see citing works

Decision making under objective risk conditions – a review of cognitive and emotional correlates, strategies, feedback processing, and external influences

Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-015-9285-x · Cited by 168 · see citing works

Protracted Developmental Trajectories of GABAA Receptor α1 and α2 Subunit Expression in Primate Prefrontal Cortex

Hashimoto, T., Nguyen, Q. L., Rotaru, D., Keenan, T., Arion, D., Beneyto, M., Gonzalez-Burgos, G., & Lewis, D. A. (2009) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.01.004 · Cited by 151 · see citing works

Neural correlates of developmental differences in risk estimation and feedback processing

van Leijenhorst, L., Crone, E. A., & Bunge, S. A. (2006) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.002 · Cited by 146 · see citing works

Age-group differences in set-switching and set-maintenance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task.

Huizinga, M., & van der Molen, M. W. (2007) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565640701190817 · Cited by 138 · see citing works

The developing brain: from theory to neuroimaging and back

Crone, E. A., & Richard Ridderinkhof, K. (2011) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2010.12.001 · Cited by 125 · see citing works

Executive function deficits in congenital heart disease: why is intervention important?

Calderon, J., & Bellinger, D. C. (2015) · Cardiology in the Young · doi:10.1017/s1047951115001134 · Cited by 122 · see citing works

Specifying Associations Between Conscientiousness and Executive Functioning: Mental Set Shifting, Not Prepotent Response Inhibition or Working Memory Updating

Fleming, K. A., Heintzelman, S. J., & Bartholow, B. D. (2016) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12163 · Cited by 100 · see citing works

The Teenage Brain: Cognitive Control and Motivation

Luna, B., Paulsen, D. J., Padmanabhan, A., & Geier, C. (2013) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721413478416 · Cited by 92 · see citing works

Rumination prospectively predicts executive functioning impairments in adolescents

Connolly, S. L., Wagner, C. A., Shapero, B. G., Pendergast, L. L., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2014) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2013.07.009 · Cited by 95 · see citing works

The factor structure of executive function in childhood and adolescence.

Laureys, F., De Waelle, S., Barendse, M. T., Lenoir, M., & Deconinck, F. J. A. (2022) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2021.101600 · Cited by 92 · see citing works

The neural architecture of executive functions is established by middle childhood

Engelhardt, L. E., Harden, K. P., Tucker-Drob, E. M., & Church, J. A. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.10.024 · Cited by 87 · see citing works

Early secure attachment as a protective factor against later cognitive decline and dementia

Walsh, E., Blake, Y., Donati, A., Stoop, R., & von Gunten, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00161 · Cited by 84 · see citing works

Adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: an investigation of age-related differences in behavioural symptoms, neuropsychological function and co-morbidity

Bramham, J., Murphy, D. G. M., Xenitidis, K., Asherson, P., Hopkin, G., & Young, S. (2012) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291712000219 · Cited by 84 · see citing works

Executive function skills of 6–8 year olds: Brain and behavioral evidence and implications for school achievement

Molfese, V. J., Molfese, P. J., Molfese, D. L., Rudasill, K. M., Armstrong, N., & Starkey, G. (2010) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.03.004 · Cited by 60 · see citing works

Developmental Expression Patterns of GABA_AReceptor Subunits in Layer 3 and 5 Pyramidal Cells of Monkey Prefrontal Cortex

Datta, D., Arion, D., & Lewis, D. A. (2015) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhu040 · Cited by 59 · see citing works

Development of executive functioning in school-age Tunisian children.

Bellaj, T., Salhi, I., Le Gall, D., & Roy, A. (2016) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1058349 · Cited by 41 · see citing works

Chronic stress-induced neuroplasticity in the prefrontal cortex: Structural, functional, and molecular mechanisms from development to aging

Algaidi, S. A. (2025) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2025.149461 · Cited by 40 · see citing works

Executive function and psychosocial adjustment in healthy children and adolescents: A latent variable modelling investigation

Cassidy, A. R. (2016) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2014.994484 · Cited by 37 · see citing works

Concordance of teacher-rated and performance-based measures of executive functioning in preschoolers

Tamm, L., & Peugh, J. (2019) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2018.1484085 · Cited by 35 · see citing works

The Vigilance, Orienting, and Executive Attention Networks in 4-Year-Old Children

Hrabok, M., Kerns, K. A., & Müller, U. (2007) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13825580600977224 · Cited by 29 · see citing works

Psychological Disorders and Ecological Factors Affect the Development of Executive Functions: Some Perspectives

Zebdi, R., Goyet, L., Pinabiaux, C., & Guellaï, B. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00195 · Cited by 13 · see citing works

The effectiveness of implementation intentions in children: A systematic review and meta‐analysis

Breitwieser, J., & Reinelt, T. (2026) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.70065 · Cited by 1 · see citing works