Parent–Child Interaction Therapy with Toddlers: A Community-based Randomized Controlled Trial with Children Aged 14-24 Months
Abstract
Objective: Children with early-onset behavioral issues are at high risk for ongoing behavioral, psychological, and social issues.Method: This study examined the efficacy of the first phase of Parent–Child Interaction Therapy with Toddlers, Child-Directed Interaction – Toddler, using a randomized control design. Sixty-six mother-toddler dyads (Child Mage = 19.13 months; 63% male; 34% from a non-English speaking background) referred to a community-based child behavior clinic in Australia received CDI-T immediately or were assigned to a waitlist control condition. At baseline (Time 1) and post-treatment/post-waitlist (Time 2), mothers completed questionnaires (Child Behavior Checklist, Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, Parenting Stress Index – Short Form) and participated in a structured parent–child dyadic play-based interaction later coded using the Dyadic Parent–Child Interaction Coding System and the Emotional Availability Scales.Results: Compared to those who did not receive treatment, mother-child dyads who received the intervention showed significantly better parenting skills (increases in positive parenting skills and decreases in negative parenting skills), emotional availability (increases in parental sensitivity and parental non-intrusiveness), child behavior (decreases in externalizing and internalizing behaviors) and parental perceptions of child difficulty.Conclusions: Results suggest that the CDI-T phase of PCIT-T is a promising intervention for toddlers presenting with behavioral issues. Future studies should be conducted to assess efficacy in other settings and to assess longer-term outcomes.
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In a subsequent RCT, 66 clinic-referred mother-toddler dyads participated comparing PCIT-T (CDI-T phase only) to a waitlist controlled condition.
“In a subsequent study, 66 clinic-referred mother-toddler dyads (child Mage 19.01 months, SD 2.36) participated in a randomized controlled trial (RCT) study comparing outcomes of PCIT-T (CDI-T phase only) to a waitlist controlled condition [54].”
From Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [54]
PCIT-T was superior to waitlist in increases in parental verbalizations and emotional availability, and reductions in the severity of child externalizing behaviors.
“Results showed PCIT-T to be superior to waitlist in a range of domains including increases in parental verbalizations and emotional availability, and reductions in the severity of child externalizing behaviors.”
From Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [54]
An a-priori power calculation based on CBCL/1.5-5 externalizing subscale scores from a similar study suggested n=30 per group would give 80% power to detect a mean difference between groups of at least 8.0, with SD of 9.
“An a-priori power calculation based on Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/1.5–5; [2]) externalizing subscale scores obtained in a similar study at the same site [54] suggested that n = 30 in each group would give 80% power to detect a mean difference between groups of at least 8.0, with SD of 9.”
From Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [54]
The CBCL/1.5-5 is a validated parent report scale designed to measure behavioral, emotional and social functioning in children aged 1.5-5 years, and has been used reliably with children as young as 12 months.
“The CBCL/1.5–5 is a validated parent report scale designed to measure behavioral, emotional and social functioning in children aged 1.5–5 years, and which has been used reliably with children as young as 12 months [54, 89].”
From Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [54]
These results confirm those of the one previous controlled study testing outcomes of PCIT-T.
“These results confirm those of the one previous controlled study testing outcomes of PCIT-T [50, 53, 54]”
From Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [54]
In keeping with previous PCIT-T outcome studies, PCIT-T led to a range of positive changes in child functioning.
“In keeping with previous PCIT-T outcome studies [50, 51, 53, 54], PCIT-T also led to a range of positive changes in child functioning.”
From Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [54]
Taken together, results build on previous PCIT-T outcome studies to highlight PCIT-T as an effective early parenting intervention program.
“Taken together, results build on previous PCIT-T outcome studies [50–54] to highlight PCIT-T as an effective early parenting intervention program.”
From Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [54]
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- Authors
- Kohlhoff, J., Morgan, S., Briggs, N., Egan, R., & Niec, L.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Research Department, Karitane
- University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center (US)
- Central Michigan University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kohlhoff, Jane
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2020-02-20
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 411-426
- ISSN
- 1537-4416 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-4424
- OpenAlex
- W3007280998
- Cited by
- 49
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 8
- FWCI
- 3.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Liverpool Catholic Club (none)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Therapy and Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
- Keywords
- Parent-Child Interaction Therapy, child-directed interaction, toddlers, parenting skills, emotional availability, child behavior problems, maternal depression, parental stress, non-English-speaking families
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Child Behavior, Child Rearing, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Infant, Male, Mother-Child Relations, Mothers, Parenting
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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