Parent–Child Interaction Therapy with Toddlers in a community‐based setting: Improvements in parenting behavior, emotional availability, child behavior, and attachment
Abstract
Parent–Child Interaction Therapy with Toddlers (PCIT‐T) is a new attachment‐based parenting intervention designed to meet the needs of children aged 12–24 months presenting with challenging behaviors. This study examined outcomes of the first phase of PCIT‐T, Child Directed Interaction–Toddler (CDI‐T), 4‐months post treatment. Participants were 56 toddlers (Child M age = 19.13 months) referred to receive CDI‐T over an 8‐week period at an Australian community‐based child behavior treatment clinic for treatment of difficult toddler behaviors. Participants completed questionnaires and observational measures at baseline (Time 1), post‐treatment (Time 2), and 4‐month follow‐up (Time 3). At both Time 2 and Time 3, there were statistically significant increases in observed positive parenting skills and emotional availability and decreases in negative parenting behaviors and child noncompliance. There were also significant improvements in parent‐reported child externalizing and internalizing behaviors, parental stress, and maternal depression. There was a pattern of a shift away from attachment insecurity and attachment disorganization. Results suggest that the CDI‐T phase of PCIT‐T is a promising intervention for toddlers presenting with behavioral issues. Future studies should be conducted to assess efficacy in other settings, using larger samples and utilizing randomized controlled designs.
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At 4-month follow-up after completion of PCIT-T treatment, gains in key parent and child domains were maintained.
“When the sample was followed up 4-months after the completion of PCIT-T treatment, the gains in these key parent and child domains were maintained [50, 53].”
From Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [53]
There was a pattern (non-significant) of positive change from disorganized to organized infant attachment at follow-up.
“While the sample size at follow-up was small for categorical analyses (n = 16), there was a pattern (non-significant) of positive change from disorganized to organized infant attachment.”
From Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [53]
The study was registered with ANZCTR (registration number 12618001554257) and delivered in accord with a published protocol.
“The study was registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR registration number: 12618001554257) and was delivered in accord with a published protocol [50, 53].”
From Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [53]
These results confirm those of the one previous controlled study testing outcomes of PCIT-T.
“These results confirm those of the one previous controlled study testing outcomes of PCIT-T [50, 53, 54]”
From Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [53]
In keeping with previous PCIT-T outcome studies, PCIT-T led to a range of positive changes in child functioning.
“In keeping with previous PCIT-T outcome studies [50, 51, 53, 54], PCIT-T also led to a range of positive changes in child functioning.”
From Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [53]
Taken together, results build on previous PCIT-T outcome studies to highlight PCIT-T as an effective early parenting intervention program.
“Taken together, results build on previous PCIT-T outcome studies [50–54] to highlight PCIT-T as an effective early parenting intervention program.”
From Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [53]
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Kohlhoff, J., Cibralic, S., Wallace, N., Morgan, S., McMahon, C., Hawkins, E., Eapen, V., Briggs, N., Huber, A., & McNeil, C. (2020) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-020-00457-7 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
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- Authors
- Kohlhoff, J., Morgan, S., Briggs, N., Egan, R., & Niec, L.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Research Department, Karitane Sydney Australia
- University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center (US)
- Central Michigan University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kohlhoff, Jane
- Venue
- Infant Mental Health Journal
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2020-06-26
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 543-562
- ISSN
- 0163-9641 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-0355
- OpenAlex
- W3037201691
- Cited by
- 37
- References
- 78
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 3
- FWCI
- 2.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Infant Mental Health Journal (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Liverpool Catholic Club
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Therapy and Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Keywords
- toddlers, child behavior problems, parental behavior, emotional availability, child noncompliance, parental stress, maternal depression, insecure attachment, disorganized attachment
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Australia, Behavior Therapy, Child Behavior, Child Behavior Disorders, Child Rearing, Child, Preschool, Emotions, Female, Humans, Infant, Male, Parent-Child Relations, Parents, Surveys and Questionnaires, Parenting
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