Sustainable biofuel production through catalytic hydrothermal liquefaction of Arthrospira platensis : an integrated experimental and predictive modeling study
Abstract
The conversion of wet microalgae biomass into biofuels via hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) is a promising route for sustainable energy production. This study investigates the use of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) as a catalyst to enhance bio-crude yield through aqueous phase recycling during the HTL process of Arthrospira platensis. The addition of K2CO3 significantly boosts biomass conversion, increasing yield by 20–35%. Optimization using response surface methodology (RSM) identifies peak bio-crude production (37.60 wt%) at 325 °C, 30 min, with 20 g of K2CO3. The catalyst improves bio-oil yield by 5.00 wt% at lower temperatures (275–300 °C). The artificial neural network (ANN) model demonstrates exceptional predictive accuracy, with an R2 of 0.9991 and a mean squared error of 0.014701. Both ANN and RSM models yield excellent results, with R2 values exceeding 0.98. In non-catalytic HTL, higher reaction temperatures and longer durations enhance oil production. The presence of K2CO3 increases bio-oil yield, H/C ratio, and calorific value while reducing oxygen content. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis reveals that temperature, time, and catalysts influence the formation of furan, cyclic, and oxygen-containing compounds in HTL bio-oil. This study highlights the potential of K2CO3-catalyzed HTL for efficient biofuel production from cyanobacterial biomass.
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Primary products from hydrothermal liquefaction of waste materials are liquid bio-crude oil, aqueous phase with water-soluble organics, solid hydrochar, and gaseous fraction, with temperature typically most influential on yields and quality, alongside residence time and catalyst presence.
“The primary products generated from the hydrothermal liquefaction of waste materials are a liquid bio-crude oil, an aqueous phase containing water-soluble organics, a solid hydrochar, and a gaseous fraction, with temperature typically being the most influential process parameter determining their relative yields and quality, alongside residence time and catalyst presence [375,376].”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [376]
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Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions
Yılbaşı, Z. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17136145 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Mozas Santhose Kumar, J., Ramakrishnan, P., & Panneerselvam, P. (2025) · Results in Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.rineng.2025.105973
Self-citationNegi, K., & Verma, S. (2026) · Next research. · doi:10.1016/j.nexres.2026.102535
- Authors
- J., M. S. K., Ramakrishnan, P., & Panneerselvam, P.
- Affiliations
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology
- Vellore Institute of Technology University (IN)
- Corresponding author
- Panneerselvam, Padmanathan
- Venue
- Biofuels
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2025-04-22
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1131-1147
- ISSN
- 1759-7269 (ISSN-L)
- 1759-7277
- OpenAlex
- W4409656953
- Cited by
- 3
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2
- FWCI
- 0.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Biofuels (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Thermochemical Biomass Conversion Processes
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Algal biology and biofuel production
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Catalysis and Hydrodesulfurization Studies
- Keywords
- hydrothermal liquefaction, Spirulina platensis, potassium carbonate catalyst, bio-oil composition, cyanobacterial biomass, neural network model, response surface methodology, furan derivatives, oxygenated compounds, H/C ratio, calorific value
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