Opportunity Organizations and Threat‐Induced Contention: Protest Waves in Authoritarian Settings
Open accessAbstract
The article combines two strands of political process theory (opportunity and threat) in a changing authoritarian context. Through the use of protest event, archival, and secondary sources on El Salvador between 1962 and 1981, the study examines the outbreak and forms of two protest waves that are generated by the temporal sequencing of political opportunity and threat environments. The specific opportunities of institutional access and competitive elections motivate regime challengers to form durable civic organizations. This newly available organizational infrastructure can be used to sustain reformist contention in the near term as well as be radicalized to launch more disruptive and violent protest campaigns when opportunities recede and the political environment transitions to one characterized by mounting threats (state‐attributed economic problems, erosion of rights, and state repression).
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Repression creates opportunities for collective action at emotionally charged focal events such as the funerals of movement participants.
“Other times, repression creates opportunities for collective action at”
From Coordinated Dis-Coordination (2024) · cites this paper as Almeida 2003
Cites
DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095101 · Cited by 38,435 · see citing works
DiMaggio, P., & Powell, W. W. (2004) · Advances in strategic management · doi:10.1016/s0742-3322(00)17011-1 · Cited by 25,866 · see citing works
Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory
McCarthy, J. D., & Zald, M. N. (1977) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/226464 · Cited by 7,381 · see citing works
Frame alignment processes, micromobilization, and movement participation.
Snow, D., Rochford, E., Worden, S., & Benford, R. D. (1986) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095581 · Cited by 5,992 · see citing works
McAdam, D., Tarrow, S., & Tilly, C. (2001) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511805431 · Cited by 5,558 · see citing works
Research in Organizational Behavior
Chatman, J. A., & Kray, L. J. (2020) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2021.100134 · Cited by 4,165 · see citing works
From Mobilization to Revolution
Tilly, C. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315205021-5 · Cited by 4,008 · see citing works
Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements
(1996) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511803987 · Cited by 3,864 · see citing works
Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation
Linz, J. J. (1996) · Johns Hopkins University Press eBooks · doi:10.56021/9780801851575 · Cited by 3,592 · see citing works
Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America
Przeworski, A. (1991) · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139172493 · Cited by 3,494 · see citing works
Thompson, V. A., & March, J. G. (1966) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2090830 · Cited by 3,351 · see citing works
Agency for International Development
Kelley, O. J. (1978) · Issue · doi:10.1017/s0047160700503965 · Cited by 2,534 · see citing works
Resource Mobilization Theory and the Study of Social Movements
Jenkins, J. C. (1983) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.so.09.080183.002523 · Cited by 1,868 · see citing works
Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in El Salvador
Wood, E. J. (2003) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808685 · Cited by 1,644 · see citing works
The Art of Moral Protest: Culture, Biography, and Creativity in Social Movements
Jasper, J. M. (1997) · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226394961.001.0001 · Cited by 1,401 · see citing works
Social Conflict and Social Movements.
Westby, D. L., & Oberschall, A. (1974) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2063450 · Cited by 1,391 · see citing works
Social Movement Continuity: The Women's Movement in Abeyance
Taylor, V. (1989) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2117752 · Cited by 1,388 · see citing works
Gamson, W. A., & Meyer, D. S. (1996) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511803987.014 · Cited by 1,268 · see citing works
Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State
Beissinger, M. R. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511613593 · Cited by 1,161 · see citing works
Conceptual origins, current problems, future direction
McAdam, D. (1996) · Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511803987.003 · Cited by 974 · see citing works
Qualter, T. H. (1991) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-349-21610-9_7 · Cited by 951 · see citing works
Meyer, D. S., & Whittier, N. (1994) · Social Problems · doi:10.2307/3096934 · Cited by 822 · see citing works
Ganz, M. (2000) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/210398 · Cited by 799 · see citing works
No other way out: states and revolutionary movements, 1945-1991
(2002) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.39-6699 · Cited by 788 · see citing works
Bunce, V. J. (1999) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816178 · Cited by 705 · see citing works
Mobilizing Islam: Religion, Activism and Political Change in Egypt
Wickham, C. R. (2002) · Cited by 617 · see citing works
Multiple Networks and Mobilization in the Paris Commune, 1871
Gould, R. V. (1991) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2096251 · Cited by 594 · see citing works
THREAT (AND OPPORTUNITY): POPULAR ACTION AND STATE RESPONSE IN THE DYNAMICS OF CONTENTIOUS ACTION
Goldstone, J. Α., & Tilly, C. (2001) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511815331.008 · Cited by 572 · see citing works
Toward a Fourth Generation of Revolutionary Theory
Goldstone, J. A. (2001) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.4.1.139 · Cited by 566 · see citing works
Concessions, repression, and political protest in the Iranian revolution
Rasler, K. A. (1996) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2096410 · Cited by 565 · see citing works
Muller, E. N., & Seligson, M. A. (1987) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/1961960 · Cited by 541 · see citing works
Income Inequality, Regime Repressiveness, and Political Violence
Muller, E. N. (1985) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095339 · Cited by 534 · see citing works
Coffee and power: revolution and the rise of democracy in Central America
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.35-0442 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
Subversive Institutions: The Design and the Destruction of Socialism and the State
Legvold, R., & Bunce, V. J. (1999) · Foreign Affairs · doi:10.2307/20049413 · Cited by 487 · see citing works
The Sequencing of Social Movements
Minkoff, D. (1997) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2657360 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
Tarrow, S. (1989) · Cited by 426 · see citing works
High‐Risk Collective Action: Defending Human Rights in Chile, Uruguay, and Argentina
Loveman, M. (1998) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/210045 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
Petersen, R. D. (2001) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511612725 · Cited by 403 · see citing works
The Dynamics of Protest Waves: West Germany, 1965 to 1989
Koopmans, R. (1993) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2096279 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Global and National Sources of Political Protest: Third World Responses to the Debt Crisis
Walton, J. M., & Ragin, C. C. (1990) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095752 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
The Repression of Dissent: A Substitution Model of Government Coercion
Moore, W. H. (2000) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002700044001006 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
Ecologies of Social Movements: Student Mobilization during the 1989 Prodemocracy Movement in Beijing
Zhao, D. (1998) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/231399 · Cited by 353 · see citing works
The protection racket state: elite politics, military extortion, and civil war in El Salvador
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-2982 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Dyke, N. V., & Soule, S. A. (2002) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.2002.49.4.497 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Forging Democracy from below: Insurgent Transitions in South Africa and El Salvador
Mozaffar, S., & Wood, E. J. (2001) · The International Journal of African Historical Studies · doi:10.2307/3097586 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
McAdam, D., Tarrow, S., & Tilly, C. (1996) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.1.1.y3p544u2j1l536u9 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
From Peaceful Protest to Guerrilla War: Micromobilization of the Provisional Irish Republican Army
White, R. W. (1989) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/229155 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
The Relationship between Coercion and Protest
Francisco, R. Α. (1995) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002795039002003 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Resistance and rebellion: lessons from Eastern Europe
(2002) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.39-4831 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Snarr, C. M., & Jasper, J. (1999) · Sociology of Religion · doi:10.2307/3711816 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Repression and popular collective action: Evidence from the West Bank
Khawaja, M. (1993) · Sociological Forum · doi:10.1007/bf01112330 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Constraints and opportunities in adopting, adapting, and inventing
McCarthy, J. D. (1996) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511803987.008 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Forging Democracy from below: Insurgent Transitions in South Africa and El Salvador
Dibua, J. I., & Wood, E. J. (2002) · Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue canadienne des études africaines · doi:10.2307/4107422 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Social Structure and Organizations
Stinchcombe, A. L. (2004) · Advances in Strategic Management · doi:10.1016/s0742-3322(00)17019-6 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Dependency and Rebellion: A Cross-National Analysis
Boswell, T. E., & Dixon, W. J. (1990) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095806 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
The Politics of Social Protest
(1995) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203992678-6 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Organizing Dissent: Unions, the State, and the Democratic Teachers' Movement in Mexico.
French, J. D., & Cook, M. L. (1998) · Industrial and Labor Relations Review · doi:10.2307/2525235 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Democracy from below: new social movements and the political system in West Germany
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-4163 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Revolutionary Movements in Latin America: El Salvador's Fmln and Peru's Shining Path
McClintock, C. (1998) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Export Agriculture and the Crisis in Central America
Seale, J. L., & Williams, R. G. (1987) · Hispanic American Historical Review · doi:10.1215/00182168-67.2.344 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Scarcity and Survival in Central America: Ecological Origins of the Soccer War.
H., P. E., & Durham, W. H. (1982) · Population and Development Review · doi:10.2307/1972389 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
The Management of Islamic Activism: Salafis, the Muslim Brotherhood, and State Power in Jordan
Lynch, M. (2001) · The Middle East Journal · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Waves of Democracy: Social Movements and Political Change.
Shanahan, S., & Markoff, J. (1998) · Social Forces · doi:10.2307/3006025 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Export Agriculture and the Crisis in Central America
Williams, R. G. (1986) · University of North Carolina Press eBooks · doi:10.5149/9781469615882_williams · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Disorganization and the New Mexico Prison Riot of 1980
Useem, B. (1985) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095381 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Political Opportunities and Local Grassroots Environmental Movements: The Case of Minamata
Almeida, P., & Stearns, L. (1998) · Social Problems · doi:10.2307/3097142 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Self-citationShantytown protest in Pinochet's Chile
(1995) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-2310 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Schock, K. (1999) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.1999.46.3.03x0250p · Cited by 148 · see citing works
The Comparative and Historical Study of Revolutions
Goldstone, J. Α. (1982) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.so.08.080182.001155 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
The Long War: Dictatorship and Revolution in El Salvador
Montgomery, T. S., & Dunkerley, J. (1984) · Hispanic American Historical Review · doi:10.1215/00182168-64.2.391 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Democratic States and Social Movements: Theoretical Arguments and Hypotheses
Amenta, E., & Young, M. (1999) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.1999.46.2.03x0183a · Cited by 122 · see citing works
The Management of Islamic Activism: Salafis, the Muslim Brotherhood, and State Power in Jordan
Wiktorowicz, Q. (2000) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Pearce, J. (1990) · Practical Action Publishing eBooks · doi:10.3362/9781909013407 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Shantytown Protest in Pinochet's Chile.
Morris, A. D., & Schneider, C. L. (1996) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2077278 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
A Protest-Cycle Resolution of the Repression/Popular-Protest Paradox
Brockett, C. D. (1993) · Social Science History · doi:10.1017/s0145553200018666 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Baloyra, E. A. (1982) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Martyrdom and the Politics of Religion: Progressive Catholicism in El Salvador's Civil War
Chiappari, C. L., & Peterson, A. L. (1998) · Review of Religious Research · doi:10.2307/3512597 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Muller, E. N., & Weede, E. (1994) · Rationality and Society · doi:10.1177/1043463194006001004 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Social Movements or Revolutions?: On the Evolution and Outcomes of Collective Action
Goldstone, J. Α. (1998) · Cited by 80 · see citing works
State repression and collective action in South Africa, 1970–84
Olivier, J. L. (1991) · South African Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1080/02580144.1991.10431942 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Latin America: Popular Protest and the State
Walton, J. M., & Shefner, J. D. (2008) · doi:10.1002/9780470712962.ch4 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Socioeconomic and Political Roots of National Revolts in Central America
Booth, J. A. (1991) · Latin American Research Review · doi:10.1017/s0023879100034919 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Montgomery, T. S., Martín-Baró, I., & Cardenal, R. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429497605 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Agency for International D2velopment
Syrian Arab, R. (1980) · Cited by 71 · see citing works
The Algerian Civil War 1990-1998
Martínez, L. (2000) · HAL · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Fighting to Learn: Popular Education and Guerrilla War in El Salvador.
Almeida, P., & Hammond, J. L. (1999) · Social Forces · doi:10.2307/3005600 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Self-citationPromised Land: Peasant Rebellion in Chalatenango, El Salvador
Anderson, T. P., & Pearce, J. (1987) · Hispanic American Historical Review · doi:10.1215/00182168-67.1.174 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Fighting to Learn: Popular Education and Guerilla War in El Salvador
Hammond, J. L. (1998) · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Mobilizing Structures and Cycles of Protest: Post-Stalinist Contention in Poland, 1954-1959
Osa, M. (2001) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.6.2.ml4u77k2370504j0 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
El ascenso del militarismo en El Salvador
Véjar, R. G. (1980) · UCA Editores eBooks · Cited by 51 · see citing works
The Impact Of State Reforms On Protest Against Apartheid In South Africa
Olzak, S., Beasley, M., & Olivier, J. L. (2003) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.8.1.591168j626123341 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Gutmann, M. C., & Wickham‐Crowley, T. P. (1992) · Social Forces · doi:10.2307/2580035 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Land Reform and Agrarian Revolution in El Salvador: Comment on Seligson and Diskin
Paige, J. M. (1996) · Latin American Research Review · doi:10.1017/s0023879100017970 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Historical Analysis of Political Processes
Tilly, C. (2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-387-36274-6_26 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Conflict-Carrying Capacity, Political Crisis, and Reconstruction
Jenkins, J. C., & Bond, D. H. (2001) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002701045001001 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
The Emergence of Insurgency in El Salvador
Grenier, Y. (1999) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-349-14833-2 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Martyrdom and the politics of religion: progressive Catholicism in El Salvador's civil war
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-3818 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Radical, Reformist and Aborted Liberalism: Origins of National Regimes in Central America
Mahoney, J. (2001) · Journal of Latin American Studies · doi:10.1017/s0022216x0100606x · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Hegemony in the Interior of The Salvadoran Revolution: The Erp in Northern Morazán
Binford, L. (1998) · The Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology · doi:10.1525/jlca.1998.4.1.2 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Claim "Radicalization?" The 1989 Protest Cycle in the GDR
Mueller, C. M. (1999) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.1999.46.4.03x0261a · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The emergence of insurgency in El Salvador: ideology and political will
(1999) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.37-2403 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Harnecker, M. (1990) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Martyrdom and the Politics of Religion
Peterson, A. L. (1996) · State University of New York Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/jj.18252681 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Subversive Institutions: The Design and the Destruction of Socialism and the State
Molchanov, M. A., & Bunce, V. J. (2001) · The Slavic and East European Journal · doi:10.2307/3086400 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Jesuit Education and Social Change in El Salvador
Arnove, R. F., & Beirne, C. J. (1997) · History of Education Quarterly · doi:10.2307/369455 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Walton, J., & Seddon, D. (2008) · doi:10.1002/9780470712962.ch2 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Pildes, R. H. (2001) · The University of Chicago Law Review · doi:10.2307/1600398 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Siembra de vientos : El Salvador 1960-69
Monterrosa, V., & Manuel, V. (1993) · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Resistance and Rebellion: Lessons from Eastern Europe
Glenn, J. K., & Petersen, R. D. (2002) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/3090071 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Formación y lucha del proletariado industrial salvadoreño
Menjívar, R. (1982) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Montgomery, T. S., & Baloyra, E. A. (1984) · Hispanic American Historical Review · doi:10.1215/00182168-64.1.173 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Movimiento campesino o lucha del proletariado rural en el salvador
Samaniego, C. (1980) · Estudios sociales centroamericanos · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Electoral Behavior and Political Development in El Salvador
McDonald, R. H. (1969) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.2307/2128602 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Voluntary Association in a Climate of Repression: Union Activists in El Salvador
Makofsky, A. (1978) · Human Organization · doi:10.17730/humo.37.1.n46n7r0144764j6w · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Centro América : subdesarrollo y dependencia
Toledo, M. M. (1972) · Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México eBooks · Cited by 4 · see citing works
¿Hacia la sindicalización de los sindicatos?
Anner, M. S. (1996) · ECA Estudios Centroamericanos · doi:10.51378/eca.v51i573-574.6677 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Social Classes, Accumulation, and the Crisis of “Overpopulation” in El Salvador
Richter, E. P., Beverly, J., Dash, B., & Dash, I. F. (1980) · Latin American Perspectives · doi:10.1177/0094582x8000700208 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
La crisis política en El Salvador (1976-1979)
Véjar, R. G., & Véjar, R. G. (1980) · Revista Mexicana de Sociología · doi:10.2307/3540034 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Notas sobre la "autonomía'' del Estado. El caso de El Salvador
Griffith, K. L., & González, L. A. (1999) · ECA Estudios Centroamericanos · doi:10.51378/eca.v54i612.6310 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Class Conflict in an Export Economy: The Social Roots of the Salvadoran Insurrection of 1932
Zámosc, L. (1989) · doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19789-7_3 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Agrarian politics in El Salvador: 1950--1984
Kirby, R. G. (1992) · Scholarly Commons (University of Pennsylvania) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Nonviolent insurrection in El Salvador: the fall of Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez
(1989) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.26-3430 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
3 of the 125 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Political Repression: Iron Fists, Velvet Gloves, and Diffuse Control
Earl, J. (2011) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102609 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
Where Do We Stand with Newspaper Data?
Ortiz, D., Myers, D. J., Walls, N. E., & Diaz, M.-E. (2005) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.10.3.8360r760k3277t42 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
A general theory of artistic legitimation: How art worlds are like social movements
Baumann, S. (2006) · Poetics · doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2006.06.001 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Disguised Collective Action in China
Fu, D. (2016) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414015626437 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Grievances do matter in mobilization
Simmons, E. S. (2014) · Theory and Society · doi:10.1007/s11186-014-9231-6 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Defensive Mobilization: Popular Movements against Economic Adjustment Policies in Latin America
Almeida, P. (2007) · Latin American Perspectives · doi:10.1177/0094582x07300942 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Self-citationZhang, H., & Pan, J. (2019) · Sociological methodology · doi:10.1177/0081175019860244 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Edwards, G. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139026956 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Political Protest in Contemporary Africa
Mueller, L. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108529143 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Stalin’s terror and the long-term political effects of mass repression
Zhukov, Y. M., & Talibova, R. (2018) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343317751261 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Mass Mobilization and the Durability of New Democracies
Kadivar, M. A. (2018) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122418759546 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Mobilizing without the Masses: Control and Contention in China
Fu, D. (2017) · Cited by 136 · see citing works
“Site Fights”: Explaining Opposition to Pipeline Projects in the Developing World1
McAdam, D., Boudet, H. S., Davis, J., Orr, R. J., Scott, W. R., & Levitt, R. E. (2010) · Sociological Forum · doi:10.1111/j.1573-7861.2010.01189.x · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Event attribution and partisanship shape local discussion of climate change after extreme weather
Boudet, H. S., Giordono, L. S., Zanocco, C. M., Satein, H., & Whitley, H. (2019) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0641-3 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Ecological Threat and the Founding of U.S. National Environmental Movement Organizations, 1962–1998
Johnson, E. W., & Frickel, S. (2011) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.2011.58.3.305 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
The Political Context of Social Movements
McAdam, D., & Tarrow, S. (2018) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119168577.ch1 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Repression, Response, and Contained Escalation Under "Liberalized" Authoritarianism in Jordan
Moss, D. (2014) · Mobilization: An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.19.3.q508v72264766u92 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Total Mobilization from Below: Hong Kong's Freedom Summer
Cheng, E. W., Lee, F. L. F., Yuen, S., & Tang, G. (2022) · The China Quarterly · doi:10.1017/s0305741022000236 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Explaining political jiu-jitsu
Sutton, J., Butcher, C. R., & Svensson, I. (2014) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343314531004 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
The Formation of State Actor-Social Movement Coalitions and Favorable Policy Outcomes
Stearns, L. B., & Almeida, P. (2004) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.2004.51.4.478 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Self-citationBlack Movements Need Black Theorizing: Exposing Implicit Whiteness in Political Process Theory
Bracey, G. E. (2015) · Sociological Focus · doi:10.1080/00380237.2015.1067569 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
The Role of Threat in Collective Action
Almeida, P. (2018) · doi:10.1002/9781119168577.ch2 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Self-citationPopular Movements in Autocracies: Religion, Repression, and Indigenous Collective Action in Mexico
Trejo, G. (2012) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Meaningful Resistance: Market Reforms and the Roots of Social Protest in Latin America
Simmons, E. S. (2016) · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Bernburg, J. G. (2015) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/1086-671x-20-2-231 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Grimm, J., & Harders, C. (2018) · Social movement studies · doi:10.1080/14742837.2017.1344547 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Globalization and Social Movements
Almeida, P., & Chase-Dunn, C. (2018) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-073117-041307 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citationMcCarthy, J., Titarenko, L., McPhail, C., Rafail, P., & Augustyn, B. (2008) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.13.2.u45461350302663v · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Fragmented Control: Governing Contentious Labor Organizations in China
Fu, D. (2017) · Governance · doi:10.1111/gove.12248 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Kill a Leader, Murder a Movement? Leadership and Assassination in Social Movements
Bob, C., & Nepstad, S. E. (2007) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764207300162 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
When States Come Out: Europe's Sexual Minorities and the Politics of Visibility
Ayoub, P. M. (2016) · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Movement Organizations, Synergistic Tactics and Environmental Public Policy
Johnson, E. W., Agnone, J., & McCarthy, J. D. (2010) · Social Forces · doi:10.1353/sof.2010.0038 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Mobilizing Under the Gun: Theorizing Political Opportunity Structure in a Highly Repressive Setting
Alimi, E. Y. (2009) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.14.2.u210745765568737 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Threat, Resistance, and Collective Action
Maher, T. V. (2010) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122410365305 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Group Threat and Policy Change: The Spatial Dynamics of Prohibition Politics, 1890–1919
Andrews, K. T., & Seguin, C. (2015) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/682134 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Meissner, K. L., & McKenzie, L. (2018) · Journal of European Public Policy · doi:10.1080/13501763.2018.1526203 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Changing to Win? Threat, Resistance, and the Role of Unions in Strikes, 1984–2002
Martin, A. W., & Dixon, M. (2010) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/653598 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
The Contextual Dependence of Movement Outcomes: A Simplified Meta-Analysis
Uba, K. (2009) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.14.4.m8477j873p47p546 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
A Tale of Two Sitings: Contentious Politics in Liquefied Natural Gas Facility Siting in California
Boudet, H. S., & Ortolano, L. (2010) · Journal of Planning Education and Research · doi:10.1177/0739456x10373079 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Moss, D., & Snow, D. (2016) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32250-6_26 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Starving for change: The hunger strike and nonviolent action, 1906–2004
Scanlan, S. J., Stoll, L., & Lumm, K. (2008) · Research in social movements, conflicts and change · doi:10.1016/s0163-786x(08)28010-9 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Dittmar, K. (2020) · European Journal of Politics and Gender · doi:10.1332/251510819x15728693158427 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Dixon, M., & Martin, A. W. (2012) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122412460649 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Structure and Dynamics of Religious Insurgency
Kim, H., & Pfaff, S. J. (2012) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122411435905 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Saying "Enough": Authoritarianism and Egypt's Kefaya Movement
Clarke, K. (2011) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.16.4.m728m673p7340l23 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Civil Resistance: Comparative Perspectives on Nonviolent Struggle
Schock, K. (2015) · Project Muse (Johns Hopkins University) · Cited by 55 · see citing works
The British Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade 1650-1775
Bean, R. N. (1972) · The Journal of Economic History · doi:10.1017/s0022050700111520 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Einwohner, R. L., & Maher, T. V. (2011) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.16.2.j263166u14286024 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Ebert, K., & Okamoto, D. G. (2013) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/sot009 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
A Zero-Sum Game? Repression and Protest in China
Li, Y. (2017) · Government and Opposition · doi:10.1017/gov.2017.24 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Pearlman, W. (2021) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414020912281 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Why Targets Matter: Toward a More Inclusive Model of Collective Violence
Martin, A. W., Mccarthy, J., & McPhail, C. (2009) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240907400507 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Chang, P. Y., & Vitale, A. S. (2013) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.18.1.p84k823062334831 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Theprospectusof activism: discerning and delimiting imagined possibility
Brown, K. P. (2016) · Social movement studies · doi:10.1080/14742837.2016.1191338 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Sticks, Stones, and Broken Bones: Protest Violence and the State
Sullivan, H. (2018) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002718763932 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Ethnographic Approaches to Contentious Politics: The What, How, and Why
Fu, D., & Simmons, E. (2021) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140211025544 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Rethinking social movement micromobilization: Multi-stage theory and the role of social ties
Ward, M. (2016) · Current Sociology · doi:10.1177/0011392116634818 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Domestic diversion: Selective targeting of minority out-groups
Klein, G. R., & Tokdemir, E. (2016) · Conflict Management and Peace Science · doi:10.1177/0738894216658675 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Human rights treaties and mobilized dissent against the state
Ritter, E. H., & Conrad, C. R. (2015) · The Review of International Organizations · doi:10.1007/s11558-015-9238-4 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Leventoğlu, B., & Metternich, N. W. (2018) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12356 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Repressive Threats, Procedural Concessions, and the Zapatista Cycle of Protests, 1994—2003
Inclán, M. (2009) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002709341173 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Mobilization without Movement: How the Chinese State “Fixed” Labor Insurgency
Chen, P., & Gallagher, M. (2018) · Industrial and Labor Relations Review · doi:10.1177/0019793918759066 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
The U.S. women's jury movements and strategic adaptation: a more just verdict
(2013) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.50-2855 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Revolutionary mass uprisings in authoritarian regimes
Albrecht, H., & Koehler, K. (2020) · International Area Studies Review · doi:10.1177/2233865920909611 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Steinman, E. W. (2018) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2018.1471215 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Crisis and Contention in Europe: A Political Process Account of Anti-Austerity Protests
Ancelovici, M. (2015) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137493675_10 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Maher, T. V., Martin, A. W., Mccarthy, J., & Moorhead, L. (2019) · Social Currents · doi:10.1177/2329496519850846 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
From the¡Ya Basta!to theCaracoles: Zapatista Mobilization under Transitional Conditions
Inclán, M. (2008) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/525508 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Multi-Sectoral Coalitions and Popular Movement Participation
Almeida, P. (2005) · Research in social movements, conflicts and change · doi:10.1016/s0163-786x(05)26003-2 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citationMotherhood and Opportunities for Activism Before and After the Czech Velvet Revolution
Shriver, T. E., Adams, A. E., & Einwohner, R. L. (2013) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.18.3.t272388n60470456 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Economic Threat and Protest Behavior in Comparative Perspective
Dodson, K. (2015) · Sociological Perspectives · doi:10.1177/0731121415608508 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Thyen, K., & Gerschewski, J. (2018) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2017.1314462 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Globalization and Collective Action
Almeida, P. (2009) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-68930-2_17 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationPopular Protest, Political Opportunities, and Change in Africa
Sanches, E. R. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003177371 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Between organization and spontaneity of protests: the 2010–2011 Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings
Pilati, K., Acconcia, G., Suber, D. L., & Chennaoui, H. (2019) · Social movement studies · doi:10.1080/14742837.2019.1567322 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Preemptive Repression: Deterrence, Backfiring, Iron Fists, and Velvet Gloves
Jaegher, K. D., & Hoyer, B. (2018) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002717750450 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Osa, M., & Schock, K. (2007) · Research in social movements, conflicts and change · doi:10.1016/s0163-786x(06)27005-8 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Mobilization and Threat: Campaigns against Welfare Privatization in Four Cities
Reese, E. R., Vega, E., & Geidraitis, V. (2005) · Sociological Focus · doi:10.1080/00380237.2005.10571270 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Josselin, D. (2007) · Social movement studies · doi:10.1080/14742830701251252 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Political Opportunities and Collective Identity in Ohio's Gay and Lesbian Movement, 1970 to 2000
Dyke, N. V., & Cress, R. (2006) · Sociological Perspectives · doi:10.1525/sop.2006.49.4.503 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Globalization and Protest Expansion
Dodson, K. (2015) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spu004 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Arnold, G. (2011) · Social movement studies · doi:10.1080/14742837.2011.562360 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Environmental Threats and Political Opportunities: Citizen Activism in the North Bohemian Coal Basin
Shriver, T. E., Adams, A. E., & Longo, S. B. (2015) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/sov072 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Inclán, M. (2018) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-073117-041043 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Lee, J. (2012) · Sociological Perspectives · doi:10.1525/sop.2012.55.3.399 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Spörlein, C., & Schlueter, E. (2020) · European Sociological Review · doi:10.1093/esr/jcaa053 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Braun, R., & Vliegenthart, R. (2008) · International Sociology · doi:10.1177/0268580908095909 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Authoritarian State and Contentious Politics
Zhao, D.-X. (2010) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-68930-2_25 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Educational Segregation, Tea Party Organizations, and Battles over Distributive Justice
McVeigh, R., Beyerlein, K., Vann, B., & Trivedi, P. (2014) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122414534065 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Erhart, I. (2014) · The International Journal of the History of Sport · doi:10.1080/09523367.2014.929116 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Anti-Sexual Harrassment Campaign in Egypt
Rizzo, H. M., Price, A., & Meyer, K. (2012) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.17.4.q756724v461359m2 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
della Porta, D., O’Connor, F. P., & Portos, M. (2019) · Revista Internacional de Sociología · doi:10.3989/ris.2019.77.4.19.005 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Shared Fate and Entrepreneurial Collective Action in the U.S. Wood Pellet Market
Hiatt, S. R., & Park, S. (2021) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.2021.1532 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Anti-opposition crackdowns and protest: the case of Belarus, 2000–2019
de Vogel, S. (2022) · Post-Soviet Affairs · doi:10.1080/1060586x.2022.2037066 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The visibility of sexual minority movement organizations in Namibia and South Africa
Currier, A. (2007) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Einwohner, R. L. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190079437.001.0001 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Lee, J. E. (2011) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.16.3.458783qv58255m58 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Franklin, J. C. (2015) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.20.1.7613070u562673g1 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Maney, G. M. (2007) · Research in social movements, conflicts and change · doi:10.1016/s0163-786x(06)27001-0 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Grimm, J. (2019) · Mediterranean Politics · doi:10.1080/13629395.2019.1639024 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
- Authors
- Almeida, P. D.
- Affiliations
- Texas A&M University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Almeida, Paul D.
- ORCID
- Almeida, Paul D.
- Venue
- American Journal of Sociology
- Publisher
- University of Chicago Press
- Published
- 2003-09
- Volume
- 109
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 345-400
- ISSN
- 0002-9602 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-5390
- OpenAlex
- W2122614432
- Cited by
- 395
- References
- 125
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 11.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Journal of Sociology (publishedVersion)
- OakTrust (Texas A&M University Libraries) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Political Conflict and Governance
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Politics and Society in Latin America
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Latin American socio-political dynamics
- Keywords
- political opportunity structure, threat environment, protest waves, authoritarian regimes, civic organizations, regime change, electoral competition, institutional access, state repression, El Salvador, political process theory
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
