The Small-Area Hypothesis: Effects of Progress Monitoring on Goal Adherence
Abstract
This article examines a small-area hypothesis: individuals striving toward a goal end state exhibit greater motivation when their attention is directed to whichever is smaller in size—their accumulated or remaining progress. The result is that, at the beginning of goal pursuit, directing attention to accumulated progress increases goal adherence relative to directing attention to remaining progress (e.g., 20% completed is more impactful than 80% remaining). However, with closeness to the goal, directing attention to accumulated progress lessens goal adherence relative to directing attention to remaining progress (e.g., 20% remaining is more impactful than 80% completed; studies 1–2). The focus on small areas increases motivation by creating an illusion of fast progress (study 3). Therefore, when individuals wish to prolong goal pursuit and avoid reaching the goal's end state, they slow down goal adherence when their attention is directed to small areas (study 4).
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Zhang, Y., Zhang, H., Zhang, C., & Li, D. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12104098 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“The theory of dynamic self-regulation points out that when consumers know the progress of their goals and are more certain that they will achieve the goals through quantitative data feedback, they will slack off and reduce their effort [31].”
BackgroundThe effects of goal orientation on goal pursuit
Som, A., Dubelaar, C., & Chowdhury, R. M. M. I. (2019) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.017 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Goal pursuit: Current state of affairs and directions for future researchPreprint
Milyavskaya, M., & Werner, K. M. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/qxswa · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Goddard, S. G., Dossetor, J., Barry, S., Lawrence, A., Stevens, C. J., & Swann, C. (2024) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2024.2412661 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“As individuals pursuing nonspecific goals move further away from their initial reference point, their motivation will decrease (based on the goal gradient effect; Koo & Fishbach, 2012).”
Ko, W. L., & Song, T. H. (2024) · Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research · doi:10.1177/10963480231226083 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…the reward gradient is that as customers get closer to the reward, the perceived marginal value of progress increases, resulting in customers’ reward gradient behavior (Bagchi & Li, 2011; Koo & Fishbach, 2012; Song & Ko, 2014; Song et al. 2017; Stourm et al., 2015; Touré-Tillery & Fishbach, 2011).”
InfluentialLee, H. (2015) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.995596 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…previous research that found that the feedback-stressing discrepancy from the goal increased goal aspiration as individuals approached completion of the goal, whereas the feedback emphasising accumulated progress increased goal adherence at the beginning of the goal pursuit (Koo & Fishbach, 2012).”
BackgroundResultZhang, Y., Zhang, H.-L., Xie, J.-Q., & Zhang, C. (2023) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-023-02103-0 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Zemack‐Rugar, Y., Corus, C., & Brinberg, D. L. (2019) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/0022243718811296 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Goal cycle: motivational and emotional antecedents and consequences of goal progress
Szumowska, E., Jaśko, K., Dukała, K., & Górska, P. (2025) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-025-10130-4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“According to this theorizing, the timing of the positive or negative feedback affects whether it makes the discrepancy or commitment framing more salient (Koo & Fishbach, 2012).”
Range goals as dual reference points
Wallace, S., & Etkin, J. (2024) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2024.104340 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The Moderating Effect of Gamification on Loyalty Program Usage in Indonesian E-Commerce
Sundjaja, A. M., Savina, G., Yuli, Y., et al. (2022) · Binus Business Review · doi:10.21512/bbr.v13i1.6801 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…program, (Bittner & Shipper, 2014), loyalty of the program, intention to participate in the loyalty program (Yi & Jeon, 2003), (Evanschitzky et al., 2012), intention to download the application (Koo & Fishbach, 2012) to see the effect of gamification on the loyalty program developed by Starbucks.”
BackgroundWhen wanting closure reduces patients’ patience
Roberts, A. R., & Ayelet Fishbach, B. (2020) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.004 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationStreaming for good: Streamer‐viewer interaction, beneficiary focus, and donation progress
Wang, S. S. (2024) · Journal of Philanthropy and Marketing · doi:10.1002/nvsm.1849 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Chan, C. L., Lai, J., Hooi, B., & Davies, T. R. (2017) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-67217-5_30 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Social psychology studies demonstrate that people invest greater effort as they approach a goal [29,8,30], a phenomenon known as the goal-gradient hypothesis, first described by behaviorist Clark Hull (1934) observing rats running faster as they approach a food reward in a maze [22].”
Remaining focus increases task evaluation and future task perseverance
Huang, Y., & Jia, Y. (2018) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2018.11.007 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Does the Framing of Progress Towards Virtual Rewards Matter?
Kundisch, D., & von Rechenberg, T. (2016) · Business & Information Systems Engineering · doi:10.1007/s12599-016-0441-5 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…that apart from the actual level of progress, motivation is also affected ‘‘by the perception that the action has greater impact because the person is comparing it to a smaller set of other actions (e.g., stronger motivation for 20 % completed vs. 80 % remaining)’’ (Koo and Fishbach 2012, p. 507).”
BackgroundInfluentialPark, S., Kim, K. K., Park, S., Choi, Y. K., & Yoon, S. (2023) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103481 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Namin, A., Dehdashti, Y., & Ketron, S. C. (2024) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2024.114992 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Brandstätter, V., Koletzko, S. H., & Bettschart, M. (2018) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2541 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Kim, Y., & Reeck, C. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02353 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“In contrast to studies focused on individual goal pursuit (Koo and Fishbach, 2012), the present studies of collective goal pursuit demonstrated that a remaining progress frame was most effective early in goal pursuit while an accumulating progress frame was most effective late in goal pursuit.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe goal gradient hypothesis: Does performance increase with proximity to goal when autonomy is low?
Bobková, M., & Lovaš, L. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01487-z · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The Framing Preference for Large and Increasing Components in Static and Dynamic Descriptions
Maat, H. P., Staal, B., & Holleman, B. C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.720427 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“1Koo and Fishbach (2012) have shown that when monitoring task progress, saying “20% has been done” is more motivating than saying “80% still needs to be done.”
BackgroundKatzir, M., & Liberman, N. (2021) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550620986288 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Gu, Y., Chan, E., & Krishna, A. (2023) · Marketing Letters · doi:10.1007/s11002-023-09692-5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Literature shows that being visually exposed to cues indicating accumulated progress, such as stamps collected in a loyalty card, accelerates consumers’ motivation toward the goal (Kivetz et al., 2006; Koo & Fishbach, 2012).”
Kim, H., & Urminsky, O. (2024) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcpy.1412 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Cao, Y., Wen, P. P., & Liqiong, L. (2025) · Systems · doi:10.3390/systems13080718 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Social information decreases giving in late-stage fundraising campaigns
Morvinski, C., Lupoli, M. J., & Amir, O. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0278391 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
An Examination of the Motivations to Maintain, Approach, and Avoid by Proximity to the Ideal State
Ecker, Y., Gilead, M., & Imhoff, R. (2023) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2023.41.1.88 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Closing-the-Gap Effect: Joint Evaluation Leads Donors to Help Charities Farther from Their Goal
Habib, R., Hardisty, D. J., White, K., et al. (2024) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/00222437241270225 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“This focus on thetargetdistinguishesneedforhelpfromrelatedconstructs,suchas need for progress , that focus on the psychological motivation of the donor (Fishbach, Henderson, and Koo 2011; Fishbach, Koo, and Finkelstein 2014; Koo and Fishbach 2008, 2012).”
InfluentialLee, J. S., Kettinger, W. J., & Zhang, C. (2025) · ACM SIGMIS Database the DATABASE for Advances in Information Systems · doi:10.1145/3715966.3715971 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“(Manderlink & Harackiewicz, 1984), and small distance feedback (Koo & Fishbach, 2012).”
Zhang, Y., Hu, G., Zhang, H., & Tu, P. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17093764 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Pieper, M., Fallon, M., & Heinzl, A. (2024) · Journal of Information Technology · doi:10.1177/02683962241280287 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Informed by SCT and the literature on goal pursuit, a research model and experimental framework for answering the RQs were derived (Bandura, 1991; Koo and Fishbach, 2010, Koo and Fishbach, 2012).”
On the experience of goals: Differentiating goal‐generic value from goal‐specific value
Converse, B. A., Roberts, A. R., Hennecke, M., & Fishbach, A. (2024) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.70006 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationBehavioral Mechanisms Prompted by Virtual Rewards: The Small-area Hypothesis
Mutter, T., & Kundisch, D. (2015) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems · doi:10.18151/7217434 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“In the field of marketing research, Koo & Fishbach (2012) provide empirical evidence for the smallarea and the goal-gradient hypothesis in the context of customer reward programs.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
- Authors
- Koo, M., & Fishbach, A.
- Affiliations
- Sungkyunkwan University (KR)
- University of Chicago (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Consumer Research
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2012-01-09
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 493-509
- ISSN
- 0093-5301 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-5277
- OpenAlex
- W2005528270
- Cited by
- 147
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 8.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Consumer Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Grit, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation
- Keywords
- goal adherence, progress monitoring, goal pursuit, attentional focus, motivation, consumer behavior
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