The DOI matches its Crossref record; 96 of the 98 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A UNIFIED MODEL OF THE FERMI BUBBLES, MICROWAVE HAZE, AND POLARIZED RADIO LOBES: REVERSE SHOCKS IN THE GALACTIC CENTER’S GIANT OUTFLOWS
Open accessAbstract
The Galactic center's giant outflows are manifest in three different, nonthermal phenomena: (1) the hard-spectrum, γ -ray "Fermi bubbles" emanating from the nucleus and extending to ; (2) the hard-spectrum, total-intensity microwave (∼20–40 GHz) "haze" extending to in the lower reaches of the Fermi bubbles; and (3) the steep-spectrum, polarized, "S-PASS" radio (∼2–20 GHz) lobes that envelop the bubbles and extend to . We find that the nuclear outflows inflate a genuine bubble in each Galactic hemisphere that has the classical structure, working outward, of reverse shock, contact discontinuity (CD), and forward shock. Expanding into the finite pressure of the halo and given appreciable cooling and gravitational losses, the CD of each bubble is now expanding only very slowly. We find observational signatures in both hemispheres of giant, reverse shocks at heights of ∼1 kpc above the nucleus; their presence ultimately explains all three of the nonthermal phenomena mentioned above. Synchrotron emission from shock-reaccelerated cosmic-ray electrons explains the spectrum, morphology, and vertical extent of the microwave haze and the polarized radio lobes. Collisions between shock-reaccelerated hadrons and denser gas in cooling condensations that form inside the CD account for most of the bubbles' γ -ray emissivity. Inverse Compton emission from primary electrons contributes at the 10%–30% level. Our model suggests that the bubbles are signatures of a comparatively weak but sustained nuclear outflow driven by Galactic center star formation over ≳few × 10 8 yr.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Therefore, either the diffusion has steep dependence on the electron energy (perhaps due to how it 'leaks' from the FBs; Crocker et al. 2015) or the diffusion does not play a role at all, in which case, the 2 . 3 GHz emitting electrons are simply advected out from the Galaxy over a time-scale of t sync , cool ∼ 25 Myr.”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Crocker et al. 2015
In the citing paper
“The age of the bubbles can be much lower ( ≲ 300 Myr) if the p -p interaction occurs in denser clouds ( ∼ 0 . 1 cm -3 ), probably condensed out of the low-density medium, inside the bubbles or at the contact discontinuity (de Boer & Weber 2014; Crocker et al. 2015; Mou et al. 2015).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Crocker et al. 2015
In the citing paper
“Although the p -p channel can successfully explain the γ -ray spectrum from the FBs, the synchrotron emission from the secondary leptonic particles fails to explain the spectrum or the intensity of the microwave haze emission (Ackermann et al. 2014; Crocker et al. 2015; Cheng et al. 2015a).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Crocker et al. 2015
In the citing paper
“The dynamical time in such a case is t dyn ∼ 110 Myr (Crocker et al. 2015).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Crocker et al. 2015
In the citing paper
“A similar bending of the polarized radio ridges near the waist of the FBs also indicates a slow rise of these ridges over a time scale of ≳ 10 Myr (Crocker et al. 2015).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Crocker et al. 2015
Citations
Cites
On the variation of the initial mass function
Kroupa, P. (2001) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04022.x · Cited by 7,499 · cited 1×
“…SN 2.8 10 erg s SFR 0.08 yr , (2.3) GC SF GC 51 40 1 GC 1 ´ ´ = ´ æ è çççç ö ø ÷÷÷÷÷ - - where a single core-collapse SN requires the formation of ∼90Me in stars (for a Kroupa 2001 initial mass function if the least massive star to explode has zero-age main-sequence mass of 8Me), we assume…”
InfluentialThe acceleration of cosmic rays in shock fronts - I
Bell, A. R. (1978) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/182.2.147 · Cited by 2,679 · cited 2×
“Values Le/LCR 0.1 are disfavored on theoretical grounds (Bell 1978), on the basis of analysis of the Galaxy’s global cosmic-ray and nonthermal radiation budget (Strong et al. 2010), and from observations and analysis of nonthermal radiation associated with giant cluster shocks (Pinzke et al. 2013;…”
BackgroundInfluentialHinshaw, G. F., Weiland, J. L., Hill, R., Odegard, N., Larson, D., Bennett, C. L., Dunkley, J., Gold, B., Greason, M. R., Jarosik, N., et al. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/180/2/225 · Cited by 1,769
Interstellar bubbles. II - Structure and evolution
Weaver, R., McCray, R., Castor, J., Shapiro, P., & Moore, R. (1977) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/155692 · Cited by 1,736 · cited 2×
“Our model generalizes the usual treatment of a wind-driven bubble (e.g., Weaver et al. 1977), in that the bubble is not assumed to be strongly overpressured with respect to the ambient medium and is also subject to significant optically thin radiative cooling.”
BackgroundMethodTHE GALACTIC CENTER ENVIRONMENT
Morris, M., & Serabyn, E. (1996) · Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.34.1.645 · Cited by 930 · cited 1×
“Currently, star formation activity in the Galactic center is concentrated east of l = 0; there is a preponderance of molecular gas on this side of the region, and Sagittarius B2, one of the Galaxy’s most active star-forming giant molecular clouds, resides there (Morris & Serabyn 1996).”
BackgroundGIANT GAMMA-RAY BUBBLES FROM FERMI-LAT: ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEUS ACTIVITY OR BIPOLAR GALACTIC WIND?
Su, M., Slatyer, T., & Finkbeiner, D. (2010) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/724/2/1044 · Cited by 756 · cited 26×
“For IC emission, γ-rays at Eγ = 1 GeV are upscattered by primary electrons of energy E 640e GeV(Eγ/1 GeV)1/2(Eγ,0/ 6.3 × 10−4 eV)−1/2 adopting an energy for the photon background characteristic of the CMB. Finally, proton primaries of hadronic γ-rays in the observed range of 1–100 GeV have energies covering the approx…”
BackgroundInfluentialCastor, J., Weaver, R., & McCray, R. (1975) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/181908 · Cited by 670
COSMIC RAYS IN GALAXY CLUSTERS AND THEIR NONTHERMAL EMISSION
Brunetti, G., & JONES, T. W. (2014) · International Journal of Modern Physics D · doi:10.1142/s0218271814300079 · Cited by 667 · cited 2×
“…grounds (Bell 1978), on the basis of analysis of the Galaxy’s global cosmic-ray and nonthermal radiation budget (Strong et al. 2010), and from observations and analysis of nonthermal radiation associated with giant cluster shocks (Pinzke et al. 2013; Brunetti & Jones 2014, and references therein).”
BackgroundThe Effect of Wave-Particle Interactions on the Propagation of Cosmic Rays
Kulsrud, R., & Pearce, W. (1969) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/149981 · Cited by 636 · cited 1×
“Cosmic-ray transport downstream of the shock is a combination of the ∼100–150 km s−1 flow of the shocked, downstream plasma and cosmic-ray streaming along the field lines at the Alfvén velocity (Kulsrud & Pearce 1969; Skilling 1971) of ∼240 km s−1.”
BackgroundROSAT Survey Diffuse X‐Ray Background Maps. II.
Snowden, S. L., Egger, R., Freyberg, M. J., McCammon, D., Plucinsky, P. P., Sanders, W. T., Schmitt, J. H. M. M., Trumper, J., & Voges, W. (1997) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/304399 · Cited by 602 · cited 2×
“The total cooling luminosity, Lcool shell, of the compression shell, R3, should not exceed the upper limit on the bolometric luminosity of the X-ray bulge, which, conservatively, is 1040 erg s−1 (Snowden et al. 1997; Almy et al. 2000).”
Background
Research works printed but not linked: 9
- Berkhuijsen E. M., 1971, A&A, 14, 252
- Bolton J. G., 1950, AuSRA, 3, 19
- Breitschwerdt D., 1991, A&A, 245, 79
- Haffner L. M., 2010, ASPC, 438, 388
- Haslam C. G. T., 1982, A&AS, 47, 1
- Kardashev N. S., 1962, SvA, 6, 317
- Sofue Y., 1977, A&A, 60, 327
- Sofue Y., 1979, A&AS, 38, 251
- Sutherland R., 2013, Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl: 1306.008
Cited by
Sorted by citations
A NEW ELECTRON-DENSITY MODEL FOR ESTIMATION OF PULSAR AND FRB DISTANCES
Yao, J. M., Manchester, R. N., & Wang, N. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/835/1/29 · Cited by 1,290
“Second, observations of the so-called “Fermi Bubbles” (see, e.g., Crocker et al. 2015 and references therein) indicate that powerful winds from the Galactic Center region have evacuated large bubbles extending to z-distances of ∼8 kpc on both sides of the Galactic plane.”
BackgroundCool outflows in galaxies and their implications
Veilleux, S., Maiolino, R., Bolatto, A. D., & Aalto, S. (2020) · The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review · doi:10.1007/s00159-019-0121-9 · Cited by 516
“5 The scenario in which slow but sustained (& 108 − 109 yr) energy injection from protracted star formation activity in the GC is responsible for the Fermi Bubbles (e.g., Crocker and Aharonian 2011; Crocker et al. 2015) appears to be inconsistent with the energy injection rate inferred from the X-ray properties of the…”
Detection of large-scale X-ray bubbles in the Milky Way halo
Predehl, P., Sunyaev, R. A., Becker, W., Brunner, H., Burenin, R., Bykov, A., Cherepashchuk, A., Chugai, N., Churazov, E., Doroshenko, V., et al. (2020) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2979-0 · Cited by 234
Detection of large-scale X-ray bubbles in the Milky Way halo
Predehl, P., Sunyaev, R., Becker, W., Brunner, H., Burenin, R., Bykov, A. M., Cherepashchuk, A. M., Чугай, Н. Н., Churazov, E., Doroshenko, V., et al. (2020) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 188
Inflation of 430-parsec bipolar radio bubbles in the Galactic Centre by an energetic event
Heywood, I., Camilo, F., Cotton, W. D., Yusef-Zadeh, F., Abbott, T. D., Adam, R. M., Aldera, M. A., Bauermeister, E. F., Booth, R. S., Botha, A. G., et al. (2019) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1532-5 · Cited by 146
Metadata
- Authors
- Crocker, R. M., Bicknell, G. V., Taylor, A. M., & Carretti, E.
- Affiliations
- Australian National University (AU)
- Dublin Institute For Advanced Studies (IE)
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (AU)
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2015-07-24
- Volume
- 808
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 107
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2119218368
- Cited by
- 120
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 3
- Type
- other
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Australian Research Council
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Astrophysics and Cosmic Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Gamma-ray bursts and supernovae
- Keywords
- Fermi bubbles, reverse shock, synchrotron radiation, inverse Compton emission, contact discontinuity, cosmic ray acceleration, hadron collisions, Galactic halo, stellar feedback, gamma-ray emission
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
