Detection of large-scale X-ray bubbles in the Milky Way halo
Open accessAbstract
The halo of the Milky Way provides a laboratory to study the properties of the shocked hot gas that is predicted by models of galaxy formation. There is observational evidence of energy injection into the halo from past activity in the nucleus of the Milky Way 1-4; however, the origin of this energy (star formation or supermassive-black-hole activity) is uncertain, and the causal connection between nuclear structures and large-scale features has not been established unequivocally. Here we report soft-X-ray-emitting bubbles that extend approximately 14 kiloparsecs above and below the Galactic centre and include a structure in the southern sky analogous to the North Polar Spur. The sharp boundaries of these bubbles trace collisionless and non-radiative shocks, and corroborate the idea that the bubbles are not a remnant of a local supernova 5 but part of a vast Galaxy-scale structure closely related to features seen in γ-rays 6. Large energy injections from the Galactic centre 7 are the most likely cause of both the γ-ray and X-ray bubbles. The latter have an estimated energy of around 10 56 erg, which is sufficient to perturb the structure, energy content and chemical enrichment of the circumgalactic medium of the Milky Way.
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High-sensitivity X-ray telescopes eROSITA and MAXI have detected the southern counterpart of the NPS, known as the eROSITA bubbles.
“It was only very recently that the high-sensitivity X-ray telescopes, such as eROSITA (Predehl et al. 2021) and MAXI , have been able to detect the southern counterpart of the NPS, known as the eROSITA bubbles (Predehl et al. 2020; Nakahira et al. 2020).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Predehl et al. 2020
The energy density in the eROSITA bubbles is ε ≃2×10^-12 erg cm^-3.
“Therefore, the energy density and the total energy in the eROSITA bubbles are, ϵ = nskBTs / ( γ -1) ≃ 2 × 10 -12 erg cm -3 and E th ≃ 10 56 erg, respectively (Kataoka et al. 2013, 2015; Predehl et al. 2020).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Predehl et al. 2020
The total energy in the eROSITA bubbles is Eth ≃10^56 erg.
“Therefore, the energy density and the total energy in the eROSITA bubbles are, ϵ = nskBTs / ( γ -1) ≃ 2 × 10 -12 erg cm -3 and E th ≃ 10 56 erg, respectively (Kataoka et al. 2013, 2015; Predehl et al. 2020).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Predehl et al. 2020
The required energy and dynamical time for the 'Bipolar Hyper-Shell' were found to be ∼3e56 erg and ∼15 Myr, very close to the currently accepted values for the eROSITA bubbles.
“The required energy and dynamical time for the 'Bipolar Hyper-Shell' were found to be ∼ 3 × 10 56 erg and ∼ 15 Myr, very close to the currently accepted values for the eROSITA bubbles (Kataoka et al. 2013; Predehl et al. 2020).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Predehl et al. 2020
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“We will see later that this structure is spatially coincident with the radio-emitting Haslam 408 MHz map (Haslam et al. 1982) or the X-ray-emitting North Polar Spur (Snowden et al. 1997; Bland-Hawthorn & Cohen 2003; Predehl et al. 2020).”
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Clerc, N., Comparat, J., Seppi, R., Artis, E., Bahar, Y. E., Balzer, F., Bülbül, E., Dauser, T., Garrel, C., Ghirardini, V., et al. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202449447 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationHoinga: a supernova remnant discovered in the SRG/eROSITA All-Sky Survey eRASS1
Becker, W., Hurley-Walker, N., Weinberger, C., Nicastro, L., Mayer, M. G. F., Merloni, A., & Sanders, J. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202040156 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationJASMINE: Near-infrared astrometry and time-series photometry science
Kawata, D., Kawahara, H., Gouda, N., Secrest, N. J., Kano, R., Kataza, H., Isobe, N., Ohsawa, R., Usui, F., Yamada, Y., et al. (2024) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan · doi:10.1093/pasj/psae020 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Milky Way revealed to be a neutrino desert by the IceCube Galactic plane observation
Fang, K., Gallagher, J. S., & Halzen, F. L. (2023) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-023-02128-0 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Among that, the clearest indications are the Fermi and eROSITA and bubbles 41,42 .”
BackgroundWhat drives the growth of black holes: A decade of progress
Alexander, D. M., Hickox, R. C., Aird, J., Combes, F., Costa, T., Habouzit, M., Harrison, C. M., Leng, R. I., Morabito, L. K., Uckelman, S. L., et al. (2025) · New Astronomy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.newar.2025.101733 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The Hot Circumgalactic Medium of the Milky Way: New Insights from XMM-Newton Observations
Bhattacharyya, J., Das, S., Gupta, A., Mathur, S., & Krongold, Y. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acd337 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“The presence of this component (Das et al. 2019a; Gupta et al. 2022) around the Galactic Bubbles (Predehl et al. 2020; Su et al. 2010) and the Orion-Eridanus Superbubble (Fuller et al. 2023) has been tied to relics of outflows that caused these structures, e.g., historic AGN (Zhang & Guo 2020; Yang et al. 2022) or sta…”
BackgroundLyskova, N., Churazov, E., Khabibullin, I. I., Burenin, R., Starobinsky, A. A., & Sunyaev, R. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad2305 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationRamesh, R., Nelson, D., Heesen, V., & Brüggen, M. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3104 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
StellarICS: inverse Compton emission from the quiet Sun and stars from keV to TeV
Orlando, E., & Strong, A. W. (2021) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2021/04/004 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationThe SRG/eROSITA diffuse soft X-ray background
Yeung, M. C. H., Ponti, G., Freyberg, M. J., Dennerl, K., Liu, T., Locatelli, N. T., Mayer, M. G. F., Sanders, J. S., Sasaki, M., Strong, A. W., et al. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202451045 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationMolecular Gas within the Milky Way's Nuclear Wind
Cashman, F. H., Fox, A. J., Savage, B. D., Wakker, B. P., Krishnarao, D., Benjamin, R. A., Richter, P., Ashley, T., Jenkins, E. B., Lockman, F. J., et al. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac3cbc · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“…from multiple sources, the most notable being the Fermi (Su et al. 2010; Ackermann et al. 2014) and eROSITA Bubbles (Bland-Hawthorn & Cohen 2003; Predehl et al. 2020), giant gamma- and X-ray lobes extending ∼10 kpc above and below the Galactic plane (see Figure 1), which outline the present…”
BackgroundGalactic Winds and Bubbles from Nuclear Starburst Rings
Nguyen, D. D., & Thompson, T. A. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac86c3 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“6, we calculate the instantaneous X-ray surface brightness of the steady-state winds of Simulations ‘A’ and ‘A?’ as Sν1,ν2X (x, z) = ∫ ν2 ν1 dν ∫ Ly 0 dy n(x, y, z)2Λ(T (x, y, z), ν), where Ly is the length of the simulation domain.”
BackgroundInfluentialScientific objectives of the Hot Universe Baryon Surveyor (HUBS) mission
Bregman, J. N., Cen, R., Chen, Y., Cui, W., Fang, T., Guo, F., Hodges-Kluck, E. J., Huang, R., Ho, L. C., Ji, L., et al. (2023) · Science China Physics Mechanics and Astronomy · doi:10.1007/s11433-023-2149-y · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationZhang, M., Li, Z., & Morris, M. R. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abf927 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Compelling evidence also exists for outflows at still larger (kiloparsec) scales (Su et al. 2010; Carretti et al. 2013; Di Teodoro et al. 2018, 2020; Predehl et al. 2020), but the physical relation between the outflows on different scales, e.g., whether they were produced by the same mechanism,…”
BackgroundWest, J. L., Landecker, T. L., Gaensler, B. M., Jaffe, T. R., & Hill, A. S. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac2ba2 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“…while others argue that they are distant, Galactic-scale features (Sofue 1977; Bland-Hawthorn & Corresponding author: J. L. West et al. jennifer.west@dunlap.utoronto.ca Cohen 2003; Sofue et al. 2016; Hill et al. 2017; Kataoka et al. 2018; Sarkar 2019; Predehl et al. 2020; LaRocca et al. 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialKhabibullin, I. I., Churazov, E., Bykov, A. M., Чугай, Н. Н., & Sunyaev, R. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad818 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationTracing the Milky Way’s Vestigial Nuclear Jet
Cecil, G. N., Wagner, A. Y., Bland‐Hawthorn, J., Bicknell, G. V., & Mukherjee, D. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac224f · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“While some of the GC’s low-latitude loops may be nearby (e.g., Tsuboi et al. 2020), X-rays arch far out of the plane (ROSAT, Bland-Hawthorn & Cohen 2003; eROSITA, Predehl et al. 2020) to envelop both γ-ray (“Fermi”, Su et al. 2010) bubbles across ∼150◦ of sky.”
BackgroundAnastasopoulou, K., Ponti, G., Sormani, M. C., Locatelli, N. T., Haberl, F., Morris, M., Churazov, E., Schödel, R., Maitra, C., Campana, S., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245001 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationBroadband maps of eROSITA and their comparison with the ROSAT survey
Zheng, X., Ponti, G., Freyberg, M. J., Sanders, J. S., Locatelli, N. T., Merloni, A., Strong, A. W., Sasaki, M., Comparat, J., Becker, W., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346576 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationFrom the Spektr-R project to the Spektr-M project: milestones in space radio astronomy
Лихачев, С. Ф., & Larchenkova, T. I. (2024) · Physics-Uspekhi · doi:10.3367/ufne.2024.03.039662 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
A magnetized Galactic halo from inner Galaxy outflows
Zhang, H., Ponti, G., Carretti, E., Liu, R.-Y., Morris, M., Haverkorn, M., Locatelli, N. T., Zheng, X., Aharonian, F., Zhang, Y., et al. (2024) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-024-02362-0 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Our calculations Article https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-024-02362-0 show that the total energy in the outer halo is 8–20 × 10 55 erg, similar to what was found in previous work 5 .”
InfluentialSelf-citationLallement, R. (2022) · Comptes Rendus Physique · doi:10.5802/crphys.97 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
VICTORIA project: The LOFAR HBA Virgo Cluster Survey
Edler, H. W., de Gasperin, F., Shimwell, T. W., Hardcastle, M. J., Boselli, A., Heesen, V., McCall, H., Bomans, D. J., Brüggen, M., Bülbül, E., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346458 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationInteraction of the galactic-centre super bubbles with the gaseous disc
Sofue, Y., & Kataoka, J. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1857 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Misaligned Jets from Sgr A* and the Origin of Fermi/eROSITA Bubbles
Sarkar, K. C., Mondal, S., Sharma, P., & Piran, T. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acd75d · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“The recent discovery of X-ray structures in the southern Galactic hemisphere by e-Rosita (Predehl et al. 2020), which appear to be the counterparts of the known X-ray features in the northern hemisphere, has reignited the quest for the origin of the Fermi/ eROSITA bubbles (FEBs).”
BackgroundGalactic Superaccreting X-Ray Binaries as Super-PeVatron Accelerators
Wang, J. S., Reville, B., & Aharonian, F. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adf3a4 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“It has furthermore been suggested that past Seyfert-like activity of Sgr A ∗ or the past star-burst activity produced the Fermi and eRosita bubbles (M. Su et al. 2010; P. Predehl et al. 2020).”
Asymmetric eROSITA bubbles as the evidence of a circumgalactic medium wind
Mou, G., Sun, D., Fang, T., Wang, W., Zhang, R., Yuan, F., Sofue, Y., Wang, T., & He, Z. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-36478-0 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Discovery of spectacular quasar-driven superbubbles in red quasars
Shen, L., Liu, G., He, Z., Zakamska, N. L., Glikman, E., Greene, J. E., Hu, W., Mou, G., Wylezalek, D., & Rupke, D. S. N. (2023) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adg8287 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Our superbubbles are morphologically similar to the Fermi bubbles in the Milky Way ( 16 , 17 ) and the superbubbles seen in local star-burst galaxies ( 56 , 57 ).”
The SRG/eROSITA All-Sky Survey
McCall, H., Reiprich, T. H., Veronica, A., Pacaud, F., Sanders, J. S., Edler, H. W., Brüggen, M., Bülbül, E., de Gasperin, F., Gatuzz, E., et al. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202449391 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationA CO funnel in the Galactic centre: Molecular counterpart of the northern Galactic chimney
Veena, V. S., Riquelme, D., Kim, W.-J., Menten, K. M., Schilke, P., Sormani, M. C., Banda-Barragán, W. E., Wyrowski, F., Fuller, G. A., & Cheema, A. (2023) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346702 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Predehl et al. (2020) reported the discovery of soft-X-ray emitting bubbles extending 14 kpc above and below the GC that are believed to originate in large energy injections from the GC.”
BackgroundDusty plasma in active galactic nuclei
Czerny, B., Zajaček, M., Naddaf, M.-H., Śniegowska, M., Panda, S., Różáńska, A., Adhikari, T. P., Pandey, A. K., Jaiswal, V. K., Karas, V., et al. (2023) · The European Physical Journal D · doi:10.1140/epjd/s10053-023-00630-8 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The SRG/eROSITA all-sky survey
Zhang, X., Bülbül, E., Malavasi, N., Ghirardini, V., Comparat, J., Kluge, M., Liu, A., Merloni, A., Zhang, Y., Bahar, Y. E., et al. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202450933 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationOrigin of Galactic Spurs: New Insight from Radio/X-Ray All-sky Maps
Kataoka, J., Yamamoto, M., Nakamura, Y., Ito, S., Sofue, Y., Inoue, Y., Nakamori, T., & Totani, T. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abdb31 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“This idea was further supported by the recent eROSITA observations, which clearly exhibited X-ray bubbles with sharp edges, both in the north and south of the GC surrounding the Fermi bubbles, where the SPS was situated at the lowest edge of the south bubble (Predehl et al. 2020b).”
BackgroundResultCaught in the Act: A Metal-rich High-velocity Cloud in the Inner Galaxy
Cashman, F. H., Fox, A. J., Wakker, B. P., Ashley, T., Massa, D. L., Jenkins, E. B., Krishnarao, D., Benjamin, R. A., Bordoloi, R., & Kim, T. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acaaa5 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…the farthest-reaching known outflows in the MW are the Fermi (Su et al. 2010; Ackermann et al. 2014) and eROSITA (Bland-Hawthorn & Cohen 2003; Predehl et al. 2020) bubbles, which are giant gamma- and X-ray emission extending ∼10 kpc and 14 kpc above and below the Galactic disk, respectively…”
BackgroundAtacama Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope (AtLAST) science: The hidden circumgalactic medium
Lee, M., Schimek, A., Cicone, C., Andreani, P., Popping, G., Sommovigo, L., Appleton, P. N., Bischetti, M., Cantalupo, S., Chen, C.-C., et al. (2024) · Open Research Europe · doi:10.12688/openreseurope.17452.1 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“A notable example is that of the “Fermi (or eRosita) Bubbles” in the Milky Way’s CGM, which are a clear signature of past feedback activity in our Galaxy that has otherwise left no clear imprints on ISM scales (Su et al., 2010, Predehl et al., 2020, Yang et al., 2022).”
BackgroundFermi bubbles: the collimated outburst needed to explain forward-shock edges
Mondal, S., Keshet, U., Sarkar, K. C., & Gurwich, I. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1084 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Unveiling the Origin of the Fermi Bubbles with MeV Photon Telescopes
Negro, M., Fleischhack, H., Zoglauer, A. C., Digel, S. W., & Ajello, M. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac5326 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Diverse metallicities of Fermi bubble clouds indicate dual origins in the disk and halo
Ashley, T., Fox, A. J., Cashman, F. H., Lockman, F. J., Bordoloi, R., Jenkins, E. B., Wakker, B. P., & Karim, T. (2022) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01720-0 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Beyond radial profiles: using log-normal distributions to model the multiphase circumgalactic medium
Dutta, A., Bisht, M. S., Sharma, P., Ghosh, R., Roy, M., & Nath, B. B. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae977 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Simulation of asteroid deflection with a megajoule-class X-ray pulse
Moore, N. W., Mesh, M., Sanchez, J. J., Schaeuble, M.-A., McCoy, C., Aragon, C. R., Cochrane, K., Powell, M. J., & Root, S. (2024) · Nature Physics · doi:10.1038/s41567-024-02633-7 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Widely varying compositions and morphology present additional challenges that also motivate scaled, Earth-based experiments to test deflection models 23 .”
InfluentialSuperradiant instability of magnetic black holes
Pereñíguez, D., Amicis, M. D., Brito, R., & Macedo, R. P. (2024) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.110.104001 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Turbulent Magnetic Dynamos with Halo Lags, Winds, and Jets
Henriksen, R. N., & Irwin, J. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac173f · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The Solar Cycle Temporal Variation of the Solar Wind Charge Exchange X-Ray Lines
Qu, Z., Koutroumpa, D., Bregman, J. N., Kuntz, K. D., & Kaaret, P. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac6349 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“The MW hot gas temperature is declining from the inner region dominated by the hot gas bubbles Fermi and eROSITA bubbles to the outskirts (Su et al. 2010; Miller & Bregman 2016; Predehl et al. 2020).”
BackgroundActive galactic nuclei jets simulated with smoothed particle hydrodynamics
Huško, F., & Lacey, C. G. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad450 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The Interaction of the Active Nucleus with the Host Galaxy Interstellar Medium
Fabbiano, G., & Elvis, M. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-4544-0_111-1 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Lara-DI, A., Mathur, S., Krongold, Y., Das, S., & Gupta, A. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acbf40 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Our results further confirm that the hot CGM is not only related to the physical processes forming the Galactic bubbles (Predehl et al. 2020; Su et al. 2010).”
ResultDriving Galactic Outflows with Magnetic Fields at Low and High Redshift
Steinwandel, U. P., Dolag, K., Lesch, H., & Burkert, A. M. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac2ffd · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Predehl et al. (2020) showed that the structures that are typically referred to as the Fermi bubbles extend much further out into the Milky Way halo.”
BackgroundGalactic halo bubble magnetic fields and UHECR deflections
Shaw, V., van Vliet, A., & Taylor, A. M. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2778 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Jet Feedback in Star-Forming Galaxies
Krause, M. (2023) · Galaxies · doi:10.3390/galaxies11010029 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
AGN radiation imprints on the circumgalactic medium of massive galaxies
Obreja, A., Battaia, F. A., Macciò, A. V., & Buck, T. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3410 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Zeng, Y., Wang, Q. D., & Fraternali, F. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad2766 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Revealing Gas Inflows Toward the Galactic Central Molecular Zone
Su, Y., Zhang, S., Sun, Y., Yang, J., YAN, Q.-Z., Zhang, S., Chen, Z., Chen, X., Zhou, X., & Yuan, L. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad656d · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…is the revelation of the existence of the Fermi bubbles (FBs, i.e., Su et al. 2010) that are directly related to the Galactic nuclear winds (e.g., Sofue & Handa 1984; Bland-Hawthorn & Cohen 2003; Dobler et al. 2010; Heywood et al. 2019; Ponti et al. 2019, 2021; Predehl et al. 2020; Sarkar 2024).”
BackgroundNorth Polar Spur: Gaseous plume(s) from star-forming regions ∼3–5 kpc from the Galactic Center?
Churazov, E., Khabibullin, I. I., Bykov, A. M., Чугай, Н. Н., Sunyaev, R., Утробин, В. П., & Зинченко, И. И. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202451762 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationCosmic rays cannot explain the high ionisation rates in the Galactic centre
Ravikularaman, S., Recchia, S., Phan, V. H. M., & Stefano Gabici, A. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202451155 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Galactic population synthesis of radioactive nucleosynthesis ejecta
Siegert, T., Pleintinger, M. M. M., Diehl, R., Krause, M., Greiner, J., & Weinberger, C. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244457 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
From the Spektr-R project to the Spektr-M project: milestones in space radio astronomy
Лихачев, С. Ф., & Larchenkova, T. I. (2024) · Uspekhi Fizicheskih Nauk · doi:10.3367/ufnr.2024.03.039662 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Evolution and distribution of superbubbles in simulated Milky Way-like galaxies
Li, C., Li, H., Cui, W., Marinacci, F., Sales, L. V., Vogelsberger, M., & Torrey, P. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae797 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
On the Mass Loading of AGN-driven Outflows in Elliptical Galaxies and Clusters
Qiu, Y., McNamara, B. R., Bogdanović, T., Inayoshi, K., & Ho, L. C. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac2ede · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“An example of such hot plasma is the γ- and X-ray bubbles in our Milky Way (Su et al. 2010; Predehl et al. 2020), whose core stellar mass within 1 kpc is ∼6× 109M☉ (e.g., McMillan 2011, circular velocity ∼160 km s−1).”
BackgroundSchulreich, M. M., & Breitschwerdt, D. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab2940 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
A deep near-infrared view of the Ophiuchus galaxy cluster
Galdeano, D., Coldwell, G., Duplancic, F., Alonso, S., Pereyra, L., Minniti, D., Bacigalupo, R. Z., Valotto, C., Baravalle, L. D., Alonso, M. V., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243370 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Emission from hadronic and leptonic processes in galactic jet-driven bubbles
Owen, E. R., & Yang, H.-Y. K. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2289 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Ultra high energy cosmic rays from past activity of Andromeda galaxy
Zirakashvili, V. N., Ptuskin, V. S., & Rogovaya, S. I. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slac142 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
NOEMA spatially resolved view of the multiphase outflow in IRAS17020+4544: a shocked wind in action?
Longinotti, A. L., Salomé, Q., Feruglio, C., Krongold, Y., García‐Burillo, S., Giroletti, M., Panessa, F., Stanghellini, C., Vega, O., Patiño-Álvarez, V., et al. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad540 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
X-Ray Constraints on the Hot Gaseous Corona of Edge-on Late-type Galaxies in Virgo
Hou, M., He, L., Hu, Z., Li, Z., Jones, C. J., Forman, W., Su, Y., Wang, J., & Ho, L. C. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad138a · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Most recently, the eROSITA all-sky X-ray survey discovered a pair of giant shells, i.e., the so-called eROSITA bubbles, with a physical extent of ∼ 15 kpc above and below the Galactic plane (Predehl et al. 2020), providing direct evidence for extraplanar X-ray emission in our own Galaxy.”
BackgroundPan, Z., Qu, Z., Bregman, J. N., & Liu, J. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ad2ea0 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“In addition, we notice five extended regions with lo-cal intensity enhancements: eROSITA bubbles (eRBs; Predehl et al. 2020), Cygnus SB (Cash et al. 1980), Eri-danus SB (Ochsendorf et al. 2015), Vela SNR (Helfand et al. 2001), and Monogem SNR (Thorsett et al. 2003).”
BackgroundMulticomponent imaging of the Fermi gamma-ray sky in the spatio-spectral domain
Scheel-Platz, L., Knollmüller, J., Arras, P., Frank, P., Reinecke, M., Jüstel, D., & Enßlin, T. A. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243819 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
- Authors
- Predehl, P., Sunyaev, R. A., Becker, W., Brunner, H., Burenin, R., Bykov, A., Cherepashchuk, A., Chugai, N., Churazov, E., Doroshenko, V., Eismont, N., Freyberg, M., Gilfanov, M., Haberl, F., Khabibullin, I., Krivonos, R., Maitra, C., Medvedev, P., Merloni, A., Nandra, K., Nazarov, V., Pavlinsky, M., Ponti, G., Sanders, J. S., Sasaki, M., Sazonov, S., Strong, A. W., & Wilms, J.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (DE)
- Russian Academy of Sciences (RU)
- Ioffe Institute (RU)
- Lomonosov Moscow State University (RU)
- University of Tübingen (DE)
- Brera Astronomical Observatory (IT)
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Predehl, P.
- Sunyaev, R. A.
- Churazov, E.
- Merloni, A.
- Nandra, K.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2020-12-09
- Volume
- 588
- Issue
- 7837
- Pages
- 227-231
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W3112683134
- Cited by
- 234
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 56 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 12.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (cc-by)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Astrophysics and Cosmic Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Keywords
- X-ray bubbles, Galactic halo, Galactic Center, soft X-ray emission, collisionless shocks, energy injection, circumgalactic medium, North Polar Spur, eROSITA, galaxy formation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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