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A UNIFIED MODEL OF THE FERMI BUBBLES, MICROWAVE HAZE, AND POLARIZED RADIO LOBES: REVERSE SHOCKS IN THE GALACTIC CENTER’S GIANT OUTFLOWS
Open accessAbstract
The Galactic center's giant outflows are manifest in three different, nonthermal phenomena: (1) the hard-spectrum, γ -ray "Fermi bubbles" emanating from the nucleus and extending to ; (2) the hard-spectrum, total-intensity microwave (∼20–40 GHz) "haze" extending to in the lower reaches of the Fermi bubbles; and (3) the steep-spectrum, polarized, "S-PASS" radio (∼2–20 GHz) lobes that envelop the bubbles and extend to . We find that the nuclear outflows inflate a genuine bubble in each Galactic hemisphere that has the classical structure, working outward, of reverse shock, contact discontinuity (CD), and forward shock. Expanding into the finite pressure of the halo and given appreciable cooling and gravitational losses, the CD of each bubble is now expanding only very slowly. We find observational signatures in both hemispheres of giant, reverse shocks at heights of ∼1 kpc above the nucleus; their presence ultimately explains all three of the nonthermal phenomena mentioned above. Synchrotron emission from shock-reaccelerated cosmic-ray electrons explains the spectrum, morphology, and vertical extent of the microwave haze and the polarized radio lobes. Collisions between shock-reaccelerated hadrons and denser gas in cooling condensations that form inside the CD account for most of the bubbles' γ -ray emissivity. Inverse Compton emission from primary electrons contributes at the 10%–30% level. Our model suggests that the bubbles are signatures of a comparatively weak but sustained nuclear outflow driven by Galactic center star formation over ≳few × 10 8 yr.
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“Therefore, either the diffusion has steep dependence on the electron energy (perhaps due to how it 'leaks' from the FBs; Crocker et al. 2015) or the diffusion does not play a role at all, in which case, the 2 . 3 GHz emitting electrons are simply advected out from the Galaxy over a time-scale of t sync , cool ∼ 25 Myr.”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Crocker et al. 2015
In the citing paper
“The age of the bubbles can be much lower ( ≲ 300 Myr) if the p -p interaction occurs in denser clouds ( ∼ 0 . 1 cm -3 ), probably condensed out of the low-density medium, inside the bubbles or at the contact discontinuity (de Boer & Weber 2014; Crocker et al. 2015; Mou et al. 2015).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Crocker et al. 2015
In the citing paper
“Although the p -p channel can successfully explain the γ -ray spectrum from the FBs, the synchrotron emission from the secondary leptonic particles fails to explain the spectrum or the intensity of the microwave haze emission (Ackermann et al. 2014; Crocker et al. 2015; Cheng et al. 2015a).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Crocker et al. 2015
In the citing paper
“The dynamical time in such a case is t dyn ∼ 110 Myr (Crocker et al. 2015).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Crocker et al. 2015
In the citing paper
“A similar bending of the polarized radio ridges near the waist of the FBs also indicates a slow rise of these ridges over a time scale of ≳ 10 Myr (Crocker et al. 2015).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Crocker et al. 2015
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BackgroundCool outflows in galaxies and their implications
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BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationSimulations of the Milky Way’s central molecular zone – I. Gas dynamics
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BackgroundMethodTHE INTERACTION OF THE FERMI BUBBLES WITH THE MILKY WAY’S HOT GAS HALO
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“Enhanced star formation activity in the inner 300 pc (e.g., Lacki 2014; Crocker et al. 2015) can also power the giant lobes.”
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InfluentialSelf-citationX-ray and Gamma-ray Observations of the Fermi Bubbles and NPS/Loop I Structures
Kataoka, J., Sofue, Y., Inoue, Y., Akita, M., Nakashima, S., & Totani, T. (2018) · Galaxies · doi:10.3390/galaxies6010027 · Cited by 43
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InfluentialThe Galactic center chimneys: the base of the multiphase outflow of the Milky Way
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“Their symmetry about the GC suggests that they originate from powerful energy injections from the GC, possibly related to nuclear star formation (NSF) or active galactic nucleus (AGN) activity.”
BackgroundInfluentialYang, H.-Y. K., & Ruszkowski, M. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa9434 · Cited by 56
“…College Park, MD 3 Department of Astronomy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI transport (e.g., Crocker & Aharonian 2011; Mou et al. 2014; Crocker et al. 2015), leptonic transport (e.g., Guo & Mathews 2012; Guo et al. 2012; Yang et al. 2012, 2013, the latter two are abbreviated as Y12…”
BackgroundMethodSimulating the Fermi Bubbles as Forward Shocks Driven by AGN Jets
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DISCOVERY AND VALIDATION OF A HIGH-DENSITY SUB-NEPTUNE FROM THE K2 MISSION
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BackgroundOn the distance to the North Polar Spur and the local CO-H2factor
Lallement, R., Snowden, S., Kuntz, K. D., Dame, T. M., Koutroumpa, D., Grenier, I., & Casandjian, J. M. (2016) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629453 · Cited by 32
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BackgroundThermal and chemical properties of the eROSITA bubbles from Suzaku observations
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“…low luminosity (∼ 2 × 1041 erg s−1) wind driven by accretion disc around the central black hole, with tage ≈ 12 Myr (Mou et al. 2014, 2015) and (iii) star formation driven wind (star formation rate ≈ 0.1−0.3 M⊙ yr −1) with estimated age of ≈ 25−300 Myr (Crocker et al. 2015; Sarkar et al. 2015b).”
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“It is also greater than that proposed for the Galactic Center in order to produce the Fermi Bubbles (Crocker et al. 2015).”
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Self-citationDissipation of AGN Jets in a Clumpy Interstellar Medium
Dutta, R., Sharma, P., Sarkar, K. C., & Stone, J. M. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad67d7 · Cited by 18
Macías, O., van Leijen, H., Song, D., Ando, S., Horiuchi, S., & Crocker, R. M. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1450 · Cited by 18
Self-citationCosmic rays in a galactic breeze
Taylor, A. M., & Giacinti, G. (2017) · Physical Review D · doi:10.1103/physrevd.95.023001 · Cited by 18
Self-citationLallement, R. (2022) · Comptes Rendus Physique · doi:10.5802/crphys.97 · Cited by 17
Interaction of the galactic-centre super bubbles with the gaseous disc
Sofue, Y., & Kataoka, J. (2021) · Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1857 · Cited by 11
Misaligned Jets from Sgr A* and the Origin of Fermi/eROSITA Bubbles
Sarkar, K. C., Mondal, S., Sharma, P., & Piran, T. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acd75d · Cited by 17
Asymmetric eROSITA bubbles as the evidence of a circumgalactic medium wind
Mou, G., Sun, D., Fang, T., Wang, W., Zhang, R., Yuan, F., Sofue, Y., Wang, T., & He, Z. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-36478-0 · Cited by 16
Fermi bubbles from stochastic acceleration of electrons in a Galactic outflow
Mertsch, P., & Petrosian, V. (2019) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833999 · Cited by 15
“…2012, 2014, 2015a,b; Zubovas et al. 2011; Mertsch & Sarkar 2011; Zubovas & Nayakshin 2012; Guo & Mathews 2012; Yang et al. 2012, 2013; Lacki 2014; Crocker et al. 2014, 2015; Fujita et al. 2013, 2014; Thoudam 2013; Mou et al. 2014, 2015; Sarkar et al. 2015; Sasaki et al. 2015; Yang & Ruszkowski…”
Inverse Compton emission from millisecond pulsars in the Galactic bulge
Song, D., Macías, O., & Horiuchi, S. (2019) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.99.123020 · Cited by 18
A CO funnel in the Galactic centre: Molecular counterpart of the northern Galactic chimney
Veena, V. S., Riquelme, D., Kim, W.-J., Menten, K. M., Schilke, P., Sormani, M. C., Banda-Barragán, W. E., Wyrowski, F., Fuller, G. A., & Cheema, A. (2023) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346702 · Cited by 14
Dark matter implications of the WMAP-Planck Haze
Egorov, A., Gaskins, J., Pierpaoli, E., & Pietrobon, D. (2015) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2016/03/060 · Cited by 14
Interstellar magnetic cannon targeting the Galactic halo
Robitaille, J., Scaife, A., Carretti, E., Haverkorn, M., Crocker, R., Kesteven, M., Poppi, S., & Staveley-Smith, L. (2018) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833358 · Cited by 8
“…structures, which appear as a superposition of loops observed through the atomic hydrogen (HI) line emission, gamma-rays (the ‘Fermi bubbles’), and through synchrotron radio emission (Heiles 1984; Egger & Aschenbach 1995; Wolleben 2007; Su et al. 2010; Vidal et al. 2015; Crocker et al. 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDiagnostics of gaseous halo of the Milky Way by a shock wave from the Galactic Centre
Sofue, Y. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz143 · Cited by 13
“The X- and γ-ray bubbles are considered to have common origin at different epochs (Crocker et al. 2015; Kataoka et al. 2018).”
BackgroundPositron annihilation in the nuclear outflows of the Milky Way
Panther, F. H., Crocker, R. M., Birnboim, Y., Seitenzahl, I. R., & Ruiter, A. J. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slx183 · Cited by 13
“In comparison, the timescale for positrons comoving with an outflow with wind velocity v ∼ 500 km s−1 (Crocker et al. 2015) to advect to 1 kpc is tadv ∼ 1 Myr, less than the diffusion timescale of the positrons.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationDiverse metallicities of Fermi bubble clouds indicate dual origins in the disk and halo
Ashley, T., Fox, A. J., Cashman, F. H., Lockman, F. J., Bordoloi, R., Jenkins, E. B., Wakker, B. P., & Karim, T. (2022) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01720-0 · Cited by 12
Fermi bubbles from stochastic acceleration of electrons in a Galactic outflow
Mertsch, P., & Petrosian, V. (2019) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833999/pdf · Cited by 12
Galactic halo bubble magnetic fields and UHECR deflections
Shaw, V., van Vliet, A., & Taylor, A. M. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2778 · Cited by 12
Self-citationThe spectral index of polarized diffuse Galactic emission between 30 and 44 GHz
Jew, L., & Grumitt, R. D. P. (2019) · Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1233 · Cited by 9
IceCube Constraints on the Fermi Bubbles
Sherf, N., Keshet, U., & Gurwich, I. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa894f · Cited by 10
“Other models include a starburst (Carretti et al. 2013; Lacki 2014; Sarkar et al. 2015), central massive black hole jets (Cheng et al. 2011; Guo & Mathews 2012; Guo et al. 2012; Mou et al. 2014) or outflows (Zubovas & Nayakshin 2012), and steady star-formation (Crocker et al. 2015).”
BackgroundHadronic Models of the Fermi Bubbles: Future Perspectives
Razzaque, S., & Yang, L. (2018) · Galaxies · doi:10.3390/galaxies6020047 · Cited by 11
CHANG-ES XXIX: the sub-kpc nuclear bubble of NGC 4438
Li, J., Wang, Q. D., Wiegert, T., Bregman, J. N., Beck, R., Damas-Segovia, A., Irwin, J., Ji, L., Stein, Y., Sun, W., et al. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac837 · Cited by 9
Emission from hadronic and leptonic processes in galactic jet-driven bubbles
Owen, E. R., & Yang, H.-Y. K. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2289 · Cited by 9
Mou, G.-B., Sun, D., & Xie, F. (2018) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aaf421 · Cited by 8
“These structures may either relate to wind driven by star formation in the Galactic center (GC) (Crocker & Aharonian 2011; Crocker et al. 2014, 2015; Carretti et al. 2013; Sarkar et al. 2015), or relate to the past activities of supermassive black hole residing in the GC — Sgr A* (Guo & Mathews…”
BackgroundPressure Balance and Energy Budget of the Nuclear Superbubble of NGC 3079
Li, J., Sun, W., Ji, L., & Yang, Y. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad3af2 · Cited by 8
Liu, R.-Y., Yan, H., Wang, X., Shao, S., & Li, H. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaf567 · Cited by 8
“…be enhanced if we consider an additional CR injection from the GC region due to its past activity (Guo & Mathews 2012; Barkov & Bosch-Ramon 2014; Crocker et al. 2015), which is inferred from X-ray observation(Revnivtsev et al. 2004; Zhang et al. 2015) and the discovery of PeV proton accelerator…”
BackgroundFermi and eROSITA Bubbles as Persistent Structures of the Milky Way
Shimoda, J., & Asano, K. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad6846 · Cited by 12
CO Emission Delineating the Interface between the Milky Way Nuclear Wind Cavity and the Gaseous Disk
Su, Y., Zhang, S.-Y., Yang, J., Yan, Q.-Z., Sun, Y., Wang, H.-C., Zhang, S.-B., Chen, X.-P., Chen, Z., Zhou, X., et al. (2022) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac63b3 · Cited by 7
Three-dimensional Aquila Rift: magnetized H i arch anchored by molecular complex
Sofue, Y., & Nakanishi, H. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw2310 · Cited by 7
Evidence for a hadronic origin of the Fermi Bubbles and the Galactic Excess
Boer, W. D. (2016) · International Cosmic Ray Conference · doi:10.22323/1.236.0907 · Cited by 8
QUIJOTE scientific results – VI. The Haze as seen by QUIJOTE
Guidi, F., Génova-Santos, R., Rubiño-Martín, J., Peel, M., Fernández-Torreiro, M., López-Caraballo, C., Vignaga, R., de la Hoz, E., Vielva, P., Watson, R., et al. (2023) · Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3468 · Cited by 3
A galactic breeze origin for the Fermi bubbles emission
Tourmente, O., Rodgers-Lee, D., & Taylor, A. M. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3517 · Cited by 5
Self-citationEmission from hadronic and leptonic processes in galactic jet-driven bubbles
Owen, E. R., & Yang, H.-Y. K. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac119 · Cited by 10
Not gone with the wind: survival of high-velocity molecular clouds in the galactic centre
Zhang, M., & Li, M. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3408 · Cited by 4
The AGN Jet Model of the Fermi Bubbles
Guo, F.-L. (2016) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921316012023 · Cited by 4
“Crocker et al. (2014) and Crocker et al. (2015) further argue that the bubbles are inflated by a nuclear outflow driven by GC star formation over the last few 100 million years.”
BackgroundThe inside-out quenching of the MHONGOOSE galaxy NGC 1371
Veronese, S., de Blok, W. J. G., Fraternali, F., Maccagni, F. M., Healy, J., Kleiner, D., Oosterloo, T. A., & Morganti, R. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202555735 · Cited by 3
X-Rays from a Central “Exhaust Vent” of the Galactic Center Chimney
Mackey, S., Morris, M., Ponti, G., Anastasopoulou, K., & Mondal, S. (2023) · Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad3248 · Cited by 2
Reconstruction of Fermi and eROSITA Bubbles from Magnetized Jet Eruption with Simulations
Chang, C.-J., & Kiang, J. (2024) · Universe · doi:10.3390/universe10070279 · Cited by 3
The Starburst Acceleration of High-velocity Clouds in the Galactic Center
Zhang, M.-F., Li, M., & Zhu, P.-X. (2025) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adb619
Galactic Cosmic-Rays in a Breeze
Giacinti, G., & Taylor, A. (2017) · Nuclear and Particle Physics Proceedings · doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2018.07.010 · Cited by 1
Self-citationUnveiling the Origin of the Fermi/eRosita Bubbles
Yang, H.-Y. K., Ruszkowski, M., & Zweibel, E. G. (2023) · European Cosmic Ray Symposium (ECRS) · doi:10.22323/1.423.0023 · Cited by 3
Space-Based Gamma-Ray Astrophysics
Tavani, M. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-65425-6_3 · Cited by 3
Modeling the Milky Way wind: Supernova-driven outflows accelerate HI clouds near the Galactic center
Afruni, A., Teodoro, E. M. D., Armillotta, L., Lynn, C., & McClure‐Griffiths, N. M. (2026) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202556813 · Cited by 2
Evidence for powerful winds and the associated reverse shock as the origin of the Fermi bubbles
Fujita, Y. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3312 · Cited by 2
The Signature of the Northern Galactic Center Region in Low-velocity UV Absorption
Soto, C., Ashley, T., Fox, A., & Bordoloi, R. (2023) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ace597 · Cited by 2
Tidal disruption events as the origin of the eROSITA and Fermi bubbles
Scheffler, T., Schulreich, M. M., Schurer, D. P. P. R., & Breitschwerdt, D. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202451965 · Cited by 2
Possible Counterpart Signal of the Fermi Bubbles at the Cosmic-Ray Positrons
Cholis, I., & Krommydas, I. (2022) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/accb55 · Cited by 3
“This activity may be leptonic (Cheng et al. 2011; Crocker et al. 2011; Mertsch & Sarkar 2011; Guo & Mathews 2012; Guo et al. 2012; Yang et al. 2012; Carretti et al. 2013; Lacki 2014) or hadronic (Crocker & Aharonian 2011; Crocker et al. 2011; Lacki 2014; Crocker et al. 2015).”
BackgroundCosmic Ray Origin(s) revisited
Drury, L. O. (2018) · Nuclear and Particle Physics Proceedings · doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2018.07.002 · Cited by 2
A Near-infrared Search for Molecular Gas in the Fermi Bubbles
Fox, A. J., Kumari, N., Ashley, T., Cazzoli, S., & Bordoloi, R. (2021) · Research Notes of the AAS · doi:10.3847/2515-5172/ac205d · Cited by 2
Can the Symmetric Fermi and eROSITA Bubbles Be Produced by Tilted Jets?
Tseng, P.-H., Yang, H., Chen, C.-Y., Schive, H.-Y., & Chiueh, T. (2024) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad50c5
No evidence for gamma-ray emission from the Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal galaxy
Eckner, C., Manconi, S., & Calore, F. (2024) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.110.123006 · Cited by 2
“As a consequence, there is no reliable model of the FBs based on first principles (for attempts see, for example, [67, 68]) rendering it necessary to resort to data-driven derivations of their spatial and spectral profile.”
MethodGalactic Cosmic Rays - Theory and Interpretation
Drury, L. O. (2017) · International Cosmic Ray Conference · doi:10.22323/1.301.1081 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Crocker, R. M., Bicknell, G. V., Taylor, A. M., & Carretti, E.
- Affiliations
- Australian National University (AU)
- Dublin Institute For Advanced Studies (IE)
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (AU)
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2015-07-24
- Volume
- 808
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 107
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2119218368
- Cited by
- 120
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 3
- Type
- other
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Australian Research Council
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Astrophysics and Cosmic Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Gamma-ray bursts and supernovae
- Keywords
- Fermi bubbles, reverse shock, synchrotron radiation, inverse Compton emission, contact discontinuity, cosmic ray acceleration, hadron collisions, Galactic halo, stellar feedback, gamma-ray emission
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