Fracture and adhesion of soft materials: a review
Open accessAbstract
Soft materials are materials with a low shear modulus relative to their bulk modulus and where elastic restoring forces are mainly of entropic origin. A sparse population of strong bonds connects molecules together and prevents macroscopic flow. In this review we discuss the current state of the art on how these soft materials break and detach from solid surfaces. We focus on how stresses and strains are localized near the fracture plane and how elastic energy can flow from the bulk of the material to the crack tip. Adhesion of pressure-sensitive-adhesives, fracture of gels and rubbers are specifically addressed and the key concepts are pointed out. We define the important length scales in the problem and in particular the elasto-adhesive length Γ /E where Γ is the fracture energy and E is the elastic modulus, and how the ratio between sample size and Γ /E controls the fracture mechanisms. Theoretical concepts bridging solid mechanics and polymer physics are rationalized and illustrated by micromechanical experiments and mechanisms of fracture are described in detail. Open questions and emerging concepts are discussed at the end of the review.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The enhanced viscoelasticity and toughness contributed to their improved adhesion compared with G-max.
“The enhanced viscoelasticity and toughness contributed to their improved adhesion compared with G-max44.”
From Data-driven de novo design of super-adhesive hydrogels (2025) · cites this paper as [44]
Cites
VI. The phenomena of rupture and flow in solids
Griffith, A. A. (1921) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical or Physical Character · doi:10.1098/rsta.1921.0006 · Cited by 11,052 · see citing works
Scaling concepts in polymer physics
Gordon, M. (1981) · Polymer · doi:10.1016/0032-3861(81)90183-x · Cited by 10,559 · see citing works
The Theory of Polymer Dynamics
Marrucci, G. (1987) · Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics · doi:10.1016/0377-0257(87)85036-x · Cited by 10,050 · see citing works
<i>Scaling Concepts in Polymer Physics</i>
de Gennes, P. G., & Witten, T. A. (1980) · Physics Today · doi:10.1063/1.2914118 · Cited by 9,348 · see citing works
The theory of polymer dynamics
Doi, M., & Edwards, S. F. (1986) · Cited by 8,964 · see citing works
RICE, J. R. (1968) · Journal of Applied Mechanics · doi:10.1115/1.3601206 · Cited by 8,464 · see citing works
Williams, M. L., Landel, R. F., & Ferry, J. D. (1955) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/ja01619a008 · Cited by 8,083 · see citing works
Yielding of steel sheets containing slits
Dugdale, D. S. (1960) · Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids · doi:10.1016/0022-5096(60)90013-2 · Cited by 7,819 · see citing works
Contact of nominally flat surfaces
Greenwood, J. A., & Williamson, J. B. P. (1966) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A Mathematical and Physical Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.1966.0242 · Cited by 5,716 · see citing works
Rubinstein, M., & Colby, R. H. (2003) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198520597.001.0001 · Cited by 5,686 · see citing works
Highly stretchable and tough hydrogels
Sun, J., Zhao, X., Illeperuma, W. R. K., Chaudhuri, O., Oh, K. H., Mooney, D. J., Vlassak, J. J., & Suo, Z. (2012) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature11409 · Cited by 5,499 · see citing works
Lawn, B. R. (1993) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511623127 · Cited by 4,781 · see citing works
Double‐Network Hydrogels with Extremely High Mechanical Strength
Gong, J. P., Katsuyama, Y., Kurokawa, T., & Osada, Y. (2003) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.200304907 · Cited by 4,552 · see citing works
Hydrogels in pharmaceutical formulations
Peppas, N. (2000) · European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics · doi:10.1016/s0939-6411(00)00090-4 · Cited by 4,011 · see citing works
The Physics of Rubber Elasticity
Treloar, L. R. G., & Montgomery, D. J. (1959) · Physics Today · doi:10.1063/1.3060678 · Cited by 3,797 · see citing works
Functional Supramolecular Polymers
Aida, T., Meijer, E. W., & Stupp, S. I. (2012) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1205962 · Cited by 3,703 · see citing works
Self-healing and thermoreversible rubber from supramolecular assembly
Cordier, P., Tournilhac, F., Soulié‐Ziakovic, C., & Ludwik Leibler, B. (2008) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature06669 · Cited by 2,996 · see citing works
The physics of rubber elasticity
Zimm, B., & Kilb, R. W. (1959) · Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids · doi:10.1016/0022-3697(59)90114-3 · Cited by 2,970 · see citing works
Adhesive force of a single gecko foot-hair
Autumn, K., Liang, Y. A., Hsieh, S. T., Zesch, W., Chan, W. P., Kenny, T. W., Fearing, R. S., & Full, R. J. (2000) · Nature · doi:10.1038/35015073 · Cited by 2,767 · see citing works
Biological materials: Structure and mechanical properties
Meyers, M. A., Chen, P.-Y., Lin, A. Y.-M., & Seki, Y. (2008) · Progress in Materials Science · doi:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2007.05.002 · Cited by 2,573 · see citing works
Reversible Polymers Formed from Self-Complementary Monomers Using Quadruple Hydrogen Bonding
Sijbesma, R. P., Beijer, F. H., Brunsveld, L., Folmer, B. J. B., Hirschberg, J. H. K. K., Lange, R. F. M., Lowe, J. K. L., & Meijer, E. W. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.278.5343.1601 · Cited by 2,396 · see citing works
Why are double network hydrogels so tough?
Gong, J. P. (2010) · Soft Matter · doi:10.1039/b924290b · Cited by 2,334 · see citing works
A New Constitutive Relation for Rubber
Gent, A. N. (1996) · Rubber Chemistry and Technology · doi:10.5254/1.3538357 · Cited by 1,862 · see citing works
Energy landscapes of receptor–ligand bonds explored with dynamic force spectroscopy
Merkel, R., Nassoy, P., Leung, A., Ritchie, K. P., & Evans, E. A. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/16219 · Cited by 1,724 · see citing works
Hyun, K., Wilhelm, M., Klein, C., Cho, K. S., Nam, J. G., Ahn, K. H., Lee, S. J., Ewoldt, R. H., & McKinley, G. H. (2011) · Progress in Polymer Science · doi:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2011.02.002 · Cited by 1,671 · see citing works
Rupture of rubber. I. Characteristic energy for tearing
Rivlin, R. S., & Thomas, A. G. (1953) · Journal of Polymer Science · doi:10.1002/pol.1953.120100303 · Cited by 1,595 · see citing works
Microfabricated adhesive mimicking gecko foot-hair
Geim, A. K., Dubonos, S. V., Grigorieva, I. V., Novoselov, K. S., Zhukov, A. A., & Shapoval, S. Y. (2003) · Nature Materials · doi:10.1038/nmat917 · Cited by 1,334 · see citing works
Dynamics of polymeric liquids: Fluid mechanics
Bird, R. B., Armstrong, R. C., & Hassager, O. (1987) · Cited by 1,290 · see citing works
Toughening Elastomers with Sacrificial Bonds and Watching Them Break
Ducrot, É., Chen, Y., Bulters, M. J. H., Sijbesma, R. P., & Creton, C. (2014) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1248494 · Cited by 1,198 · see citing works
Self-citationFrom micro to nano contacts in biological attachment devices
Arzt, E., Gorb, S. N., & Spolenak, R. (2003) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1534701100 · Cited by 1,159 · see citing works
HILL, R. (1955) · Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids · doi:10.1016/0022-5096(55)90017-x · Cited by 1,159 · see citing works
Giesekus, H. (1982) · Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics · doi:10.1016/0377-0257(82)85016-7 · Cited by 1,059 · see citing works
The strength of highly elastic materials
Lake, G. J., & Thomas, A. G. (1967) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A Mathematical and Physical Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.1967.0160 · Cited by 1,031 · see citing works
Calvert, P. (2008) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.200800534 · Cited by 1,006 · see citing works
The effect of surface roughness on the adhesion of elastic solids
Fuller, K. N. G., & Tabor, D. (1975) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A Mathematical and Physical Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.1975.0138 · Cited by 982 · see citing works
Fracture mechanics of polymers
Williams, J. G. (1977) · Polymer Engineering and Science · doi:10.1002/pen.760170303 · Cited by 843 · see citing works
Nanoparticle solutions as adhesives for gels and biological tissues
Rose, S., Prévoteau, A., Elzière, P., Hourdet, D., Marcellan, A., & Ludwik Leibler, B. (2013) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature12806 · Cited by 808 · see citing works
Tough and Self-Healing Hydrogels Formed via Hydrophobic Interactions
Tuncaboylu, D. C., Sari, M., Oppermann, W., & Okay, O. (2011) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma200579v · Cited by 771 · see citing works
Large Strain Hysteresis and Mullins Effect of Tough Double-Network Hydrogels
Webber, R. E., Creton, C., Brown, H. R., & Gong, J. P. (2007) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma062924y · Cited by 709 · see citing works
Self-citationDiscontinuous equilibrium solutions and cavitation in nonlinear elasticity
Ball, J. M. (1982) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A Mathematical and Physical Sciences · doi:10.1098/rsta.1982.0095 · Cited by 668 · see citing works
Fracture mechanics and the adherence of viscoelastic bodies
Maugis, D., & Barquins, M. (1978) · Journal of Physics D Applied Physics · doi:10.1088/0022-3727/11/14/011 · Cited by 662 · see citing works
Adhesion and friction in gecko toe attachment and detachment
Tian, Y., Pesika, N. S., Zeng, H., Rosenberg, K., Zhao, B., McGuiggan, P. M., Autumn, K., & Israelachvili, J. N. (2006) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0608841103 · Cited by 661 · see citing works
A theory of crack initiation and growth in viscoelastic media
Schapery, R. A. (1975) · International Journal of Fracture · doi:10.1007/bf00034721 · Cited by 629 · see citing works
Fracture mechanics studies of crack healing and welding of polymers
Jud, K., Kausch, H. H., & Williams, J. G. (1981) · Journal of Materials Science · doi:10.1007/bf00552073 · Cited by 601 · see citing works
Evidence for self-cleaning in gecko setae
Hansen, W. R., & Autumn, K. (2005) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0408304102 · Cited by 601 · see citing works
Handbook of Pressure Sensitive Adhesive Technology
(1989) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-0866-0 · Cited by 600 · see citing works
Internal rupture of bonded rubber cylinders in tension
Gent, A. N., & Lindley, P. B. (1959) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A Mathematical and Physical Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.1959.0016 · Cited by 598 · see citing works
A Nonlinear Network Viscoelastic Model
Phan-Thien, N. (1978) · Journal of Rheology · doi:10.1122/1.549481 · Cited by 597 · see citing works
Effect of Wetting Liquids on the Strength of Adhesion of Viscoelastic Material
Gent, A. N., & Schultz, J. A. (1972) · The Journal of Adhesion · doi:10.1080/00218467208072199 · Cited by 593 · see citing works
A theory of crack initiation and growth in viscoelastic media
Schapery, R. A. (1975) · International Journal of Fracture · doi:10.1007/bf00116363 · Cited by 587 · see citing works
Elasticity of polymer networks
Rubinstein, M., & Panyukov, S. (2002) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma0203849 · Cited by 566 · see citing works
Adaptive fluid-infused porous films with tunable transparency and wettability
Yao, X., Hu, Y., Grinthal, A., et al. (2013) · Nature Materials · doi:10.1038/nmat3598 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
Treatise on adhesion and adhesives
Patrick, R. L. (1967) · International Linear Collider · Cited by 549 · see citing works
Slippery pre-suffused surfaces
Lafuma, A., & Quéré, D. (2011) · Europhysics Letters (EPL) · doi:10.1209/0295-5075/96/56001 · Cited by 533 · see citing works
Fracture Mechanics of Polymers
Bailey, J. E. (1985) · Composites · doi:10.1016/0010-4361(85)90660-3 · Cited by 518 · see citing works
Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives: An Introductory Course
Creton, C. (2003) · MRS Bulletin · doi:10.1557/mrs2003.124 · Cited by 493 · see citing works
Self-citationContact mechanics and the adhesion of soft solids
Shull, K. R. (2002) · Materials Science and Engineering R Reports · doi:10.1016/s0927-796x(01)00039-0 · Cited by 484 · see citing works
Fabrication Approaches for Generating Complex Micro- and Nanopatterns on Polymeric Surfaces
del Campo, A., & Arzt, E. (2008) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/cr050018y · Cited by 482 · see citing works
Gong, J. P. (2014) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1252389 · Cited by 476 · see citing works
Polymers at Surfaces and Interfaces
Jones, R., & Richards, R. W. (1999) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511623196 · Cited by 426 · see citing works
Design of biomimetic fibrillar interfaces: 1. Making contact
Glassmaker, N. J., Jagota, A., Hui, C., et al. (2004) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2004.0004 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Lakrout, H., Sergot, P., & Creton, C. (1999) · The Journal of Adhesion · doi:10.1080/00218469908017233 · Cited by 389 · see citing works
Self-citationThe tube model theory of rubber elasticity
Edwards, S. F., & Vilgis, T. A. (1988) · Reports on Progress in Physics · doi:10.1088/0034-4885/51/2/003 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
Adhesion of viscoelastic materials to rigid substrates
Gent, A. N., & Petrich, R. P. (1969) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A Mathematical and Physical Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.1969.0085 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
Limiting Negative Pressure of Water
Briggs, L. J. (1950) · Journal of Applied Physics · doi:10.1063/1.1699741 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Polymers at surfaces and interfaces
(1999) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.37-1567 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Gent, A. N. (1996) · Langmuir · doi:10.1021/la950887q · Cited by 358 · see citing works
Greensmith, H. W. (1963) · Journal of Applied Polymer Science · doi:10.1002/app.1963.070070316 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
Factors that Affect the Fatigue Life of Rubber: A Literature Survey
Mars, W. V., & Fatemi, A. (2004) · Rubber Chemistry and Technology · doi:10.5254/1.3547831 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
Contact between rough surfaces and a criterion for macroscopic adhesion
Pastewka, L., & Robbins, M. O. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1320846111 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
A Model of the Fracture of Double Network Gels
Brown, H. R. (2007) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma062642y · Cited by 331 · see citing works
The mechanical fatigue limit for rubber
Lake, G. J., & Lindley, P. B. (1965) · Journal of Applied Polymer Science · doi:10.1002/app.1965.070090405 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
Self‐healing in Nanocomposite Hydrogels
Haraguchi, K., Uyama, K., & Tanimoto, H. (2011) · Macromolecular Rapid Communications · doi:10.1002/marc.201100248 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Large Strain and Fracture Properties of Poly(dimethylacrylamide)/Silica Hybrid Hydrogels
Lin, W., Fan, W., Marcellan, A., et al. (2010) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma901937r · Cited by 314 · see citing works
The effect of surface roughness on the adhesion of elastic solids
Persson, B. N. J., & Tosatti, E. (2001) · The Journal of Chemical Physics · doi:10.1063/1.1398300 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Crack propagation in viscoelastic solids
Persson, B. N. J., & Brener, E. A. (2005) · Physical Review E · doi:10.1103/physreve.71.036123 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Determination of Fracture Energy of High Strength Double Network Hydrogels
Tanaka, Y., Kuwabara, R., Na, Y.-H., et al. (2005) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry B · doi:10.1021/jp0500790 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
A theory of crack initiation and growth in viscoelastic media II. Approximate methods of analysis
Schapery, R. A. (1975) · International Journal of Fracture · doi:10.1007/bf00033526 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Adhesion and tack of polymers: Influence of mechanical properties and surface tensions
Zosel, A. (1985) · Colloid & Polymer Science · doi:10.1007/bf01421887 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
STRAIN-INDUCED CRYSTALLIZATION OF NATURAL RUBBER: A REVIEW OF X-RAY DIFFRACTION INVESTIGATIONS
Huneau, B. (2011) · Rubber Chemistry and Technology · doi:10.5254/1.3601131 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
Synthetic gecko foot-hairs from multiwalled carbon nanotubes
Yurdumakan, B., Raravikar, N., Ajayan, P. M., & Dhinojwala, A. (2005) · Chemical Communications · doi:10.1039/b506047h · Cited by 297 · see citing works
de Gennes, P. G. (1996) · Langmuir · doi:10.1021/la950886y · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Design of biomimetic fibrillar interfaces: 2. Mechanics of enhanced adhesion
Hui, C., Glassmaker, N. J., Tang, T., et al. (2004) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2004.0005 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Mechanics of adhesive failure. I
Andrews, E. H., & Kinloch, A. J. (1973) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A Mathematical and Physical Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.1973.0032 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
A molecular interpretation of the toughness of glassy polymers
Brown, H. R. (1991) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma00010a018 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
Nucleation and Growth of Gas Bubbles in Elastomers
Gent, A. N., & Tompkins, D. A. (1969) · Journal of Applied Physics · doi:10.1063/1.1658026 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Effects of contact shape on the scaling of biological attachments
Spolenak, R., Gorb, S. N., Gao, H., & Arzt, E. (2004) · Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.2004.1326 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Adhesion design maps for bio-inspired attachment systems
Spolenak, R., Gorb, S. N., & Arzt, E. (2004) · Acta Biomaterialia · doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2004.08.004 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Crack propagation in rubber-like materials
Persson, B. N. J., Albohr, O., Heinrich, G., & Ueba, H. (2005) · Journal of Physics Condensed Matter · doi:10.1088/0953-8984/17/44/r01 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
The elasticity and related properties of rubbers
Treloar, L. R. G. (1973) · Reports on Progress in Physics · doi:10.1088/0034-4885/36/7/001 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Characterization of internal fracture process of double network hydrogels under uniaxial elongation
Nakajima, T., Kurokawa, T., Ahmed, S., et al. (2012) · Soft Matter · doi:10.1039/c2sm27232f · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Crack blunting and the strength of soft elastic solids
Hui, C., Jagota, A., Bennison, S. J., et al. (2003) · Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.2002.1057 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Rupture of rubber. II. The strain concentration at an incision
Thomas, A. G. (1955) · Journal of Polymer Science · doi:10.1002/pol.1955.120188802 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Biological attachment devices: exploring nature's diversity for biomimetics
Gorb, S. N. (2008) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rsta.2007.2172 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Elastic contact between randomly rough surfaces: Comparison of theory with numerical results
Persson, B. N. J., Bucher, F., & Chiaia, B. M. (2002) · Physical review. B, Condensed matter · doi:10.1103/physrevb.65.184106 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
The effect of fibrilation on the tack of pressure sensitive adhesives
Zosel, A. (1998) · International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives · doi:10.1016/s0143-7496(98)80060-2 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Deformation and failure modes of adhesively bonded elastic layers
Crosby, A. J., Shull, K. R., Lakrout, H., et al. (2000) · Journal of Applied Physics · doi:10.1063/1.1288017 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Surface-Anchored Polymer Chains: Their Role in Adhesion and Friction
Léger, L., Raphaël, É., & Hervet, H. (1999) · Advances in polymer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-69711-x_5 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
The effect of surface roughness on the adhesion of elastic solids
Persson, B. N. J., & Tosatti, E. (2001) · JuSER (Forschungszentrum Jülich) · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Dependence of the ultimate properties of a GR‐S rubber on strain rate and temperature
Smith, T. L. (1958) · Journal of Polymer Science · doi:10.1002/pol.1958.1203212409 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Solvent control of crack dynamics in a reversible hydrogel
Baumberger, T., Caroli, C., & Martina, D. (2006) · Nature Materials · doi:10.1038/nmat1666 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Theory and Analysis of Peel Adhesion: Bond Stresses and Distributions
Kaelble, D. H. (1960) · Transactions of the Society of Rheology · doi:10.1122/1.548868 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Cavitation in Nonlinearly Elastic Solids: A Review
Horgan, C. O., & Polignone, D. A. (1995) · Applied Mechanics Reviews · doi:10.1115/1.3005108 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Macroscopic Evidence of the Effect of Interfacial Slippage on Adhesion
Newby, B. Z., Chaudhury, M. K., & Brown, H. R. (1995) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.269.5229.1407 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Sentmanat, M. L., Wang, B. N., & McKinley, G. H. (2005) · Journal of Rheology · doi:10.1122/1.1896956 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Rubber-rubber adhesion with connector molecules
Raphaël, É., & de Gennes, P. G. (1992) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/j100189a018 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Treatise on adhesion and adhesives
Zettlemoyer, A. C. (1974) · Journal of Colloid and Interface Science · doi:10.1016/0021-9797(74)90343-9 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Murphy, M. P., Aksak, B., & Sitti, M. (2007) · Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology · doi:10.1163/156856107782328380 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Narita, T., Mayumi, K., Ducouret, G., et al. (2013) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma400600f · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Stress-Induced Crystallization around a Crack Tip in Natural Rubber
Trabelsi, S., Albouy, P., & Rault, J. (2002) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma021106c · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Time Dependent Behavior of a Dual Cross-Link Self-Healing Gel: Theory and Experiments
Long, R., Mayumi, K., Creton, C., et al. (2014) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma501290h · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Self-citationFracture mechanics and cavitation in rubber-like solids
Gent, A. N., & Wang, C. (1991) · Journal of Materials Science · doi:10.1007/bf01124691 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
An asymptotic finite-deformation analysis of the elastostatic field near the tip of a crack
Knowles, J. C., & Sternberg, E. (1973) · Journal of Elasticity · doi:10.1007/bf00045816 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
On the contact and adhesion of rough surfaces
Maugis, D. (1996) · Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology · doi:10.1163/156856196x00832 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Cut growth and fatigue of rubbers. II. Experiments on a noncrystallizing rubber
Lake, G. J., & Lindley, P. B. (1964) · Journal of Applied Polymer Science · doi:10.1002/app.1964.070080212 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Direct Observation of Damage Zone around Crack Tips in Double-Network Gels
Yu, Q. M., Tanaka, Y., Furukawa, H., et al. (2009) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma900622s · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Effect of interfacial bonding on the strength of adhesion
Ahagon, A., & Gent, A. N. (1975) · Journal of Polymer Science Polymer Physics Edition · doi:10.1002/pol.1975.180130703 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Spatulate structures in biological fibrillar adhesion
Varenberg, M., Pugno, N. M., & Gorb, S. N. (2010) · Soft Matter · doi:10.1039/c003207g · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Mechanics of adhesive failure. II
Andrews, E. H., & Kinloch, A. J. (1973) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A Mathematical and Physical Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.1973.0033 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Gay, C., & Ludwik Leibler, B. (1999) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.82.936 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Strain-Induced Crystallization of Natural Rubber and Cross-Link Densities Heterogeneities
Candau, N., Laghmach, R., Chazeau, L., Chenal, J., Gauthier, C., Biben, T., & Munch, É. (2014) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma5006843 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Adhesion and Adhesives Technology
Pocius, A. V. (2021) · Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Co. KG eBooks · doi:10.3139/9781569908501 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Peel Adhesion: Influence of Surface Energies and Adhesive Rheology
Kaelble, D. H. (1969) · The Journal of Adhesion · doi:10.1080/00218466908078882 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Cavitation in Rubber: A Cautionary Tale
Gent, A. N. (1990) · Rubber Chemistry and Technology · doi:10.5254/1.3538266 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
A practical approach to the development of a synthetic Gecko tape
Davies, J. R., Haq, S., Hawke, T., & Sargent, J. P. (2008) · International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives · doi:10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2008.07.009 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Creton, C., Krämer, E. J., Brown, H. R., et al. (2001) · Advances in polymer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-45141-2_2 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Self-citationDeformation behavior of thin, compliant layers under tensile loading conditions
Shull, K. R., & Creton, C. (2004) · Journal of Polymer Science Part B Polymer Physics · doi:10.1002/polb.20258 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Self-citationHighly Elastic and Deformable Hydrogel Formed from Tetra‐arm Polymers
Sakai, T., Akagi, Y., Matsunaga, T., Kurakazu, M., Chung, U., & Shibayama, M. (2010) · Macromolecular Rapid Communications · doi:10.1002/marc.201000286 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Threshold fracture energies for elastomers
Ahagon, A., & Gent, A. N. (1975) · Journal of Polymer Science Polymer Physics Edition · doi:10.1002/pol.1975.180131005 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Contact area between a viscoelastic solid and a hard, randomly rough, substrate
Persson, B. N. J., Albohr, O., Creton, C., et al. (2004) · The Journal of Chemical Physics · doi:10.1063/1.1697376 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Self-citationElongational behaviour of a low density polyethylene melt
Münstedt, H., & Laun, H. M. (1979) · Rheologica Acta · doi:10.1007/bf01736955 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Fine Tuning the Adhesive Properties of a Soft Nanostructured Adhesive with Rheological Measurements
Deplace, F., Carelli, C., Mariot, S., et al. (2009) · The Journal of Adhesion · doi:10.1080/00218460902727381 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Creton, C., Hooker, J. C., & Shull, K. R. (2001) · Langmuir · doi:10.1021/la010117g · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Self-citationCavitation in elastic and elastic-plastic solids
Hang-Sheng, H., & Abeyaratne, R. (1992) · Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids · doi:10.1016/0022-5096(92)80004-a · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Nase, J., Lindner, A., & Creton, C. (2008) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.101.074503 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Self-citationAhmed, S., Nakajima, T., Kurokawa, T., et al. (2014) · Polymer · doi:10.1016/j.polymer.2013.12.066 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Theory and Analysis of Peel Adhesion: Mechanisms and Mechanics
Kaelble, D. H. (1959) · Transactions of the Society of Rheology · doi:10.1122/1.548850 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
A local damage model for anomalous high toughness of double-network gels
Tanaka, Y. (2007) · Europhysics Letters (EPL) · doi:10.1209/0295-5075/78/56005 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Spiropyran as a Mechanochromic Probe in Dual Cross-Linked Elastomers
Zhang, H., Chen, Y., Lin, Y., et al. (2014) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma500760p · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Cavitation criterion for rubber materials: A review of void‐growth models
Fond, C. (2001) · Journal of Polymer Science Part B Polymer Physics · doi:10.1002/polb.1183 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Fracture energy of polymer gels with controlled network structures
Akagi, Y., Sakurai, H., Gong, J. P., et al. (2013) · The Journal of Chemical Physics · doi:10.1063/1.4823834 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Fracture and large strain behavior of self-assembled triblock copolymer gels
Seitz, M. E., Martina, D., Baumberger, T., Krishnan, V. R., Hui, C., & Shull, K. R. (2008) · Soft Matter · doi:10.1039/b810041a · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Scaling and biomechanics of surface attachment in climbing animals
Labonte, D., & Federle, W. (2014) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2014.0027 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Technology of Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives and Products
(2008) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781420059410 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Creating Gecko‐Like Adhesives for “Real World” Surfaces
King, D. R., Bartlett, M. D., Gilman, C. A., Irschick, D. J., & Crosby, A. J. (2014) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.201306259 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Zhang, H., Scholz, A. K., de Crevoisier, J., et al. (2012) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma2023606 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Peel Adhesion: Micro-Fracture Mechanics of Interfacial Unbonding of Polymers
Kaelble, D. H. (1965) · Transactions of the Society of Rheology · doi:10.1122/1.549022 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Frictional and elastic energy in gecko adhesive detachment
Gravish, N., Wilkinson, M., & Autumn, K. (2007) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2007.1077 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Dioxetanes as Mechanoluminescent Probes in Thermoplastic Elastomers
Chen, Y., & Sijbesma, R. P. (2014) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma500598t · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Yang, S. Y., Carlson, A., Cheng, H., Yu, Q., Ahmed, N., Wu, J. C., Kim, S., Sitti, M., Ferreira, P. M., Huang, Y., et al. (2012) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.201104975 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Adhesive Failure and Deformation Behaviour of Polymers
Zosel, A. (1989) · The Journal of Adhesion · doi:10.1080/00218468908048202 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Time Dependence of Dissipative and Recovery Processes in Nanohybrid Hydrogels
Rose, S., Dizeux, A., Narita, T., Hourdet, D., & Marcellan, A. (2013) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma400447j · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Spherical flaw instability in hydrostatic tension
Williams, M. L., & Schapery, R. A. (1965) · International Journal of Fracture · doi:10.1007/bf00184154 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Greensmith, H. W., Mullins, L., & Thomas, A. G. (1960) · Transactions of the Society of Rheology · doi:10.1122/1.548870 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Nano-hybrid self-crosslinked PDMA/silica hydrogels
Carlsson, L., Rose, S., Hourdet, D., & Marcellan, A. (2010) · Soft Matter · doi:10.1039/c0sm00009d · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Effect of Interfacial Slippage on Viscoelastic Adhesion
Newby, B. Z., & Chaudhury, M. K. (1997) · Langmuir · doi:10.1021/la960962c · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Threshold tear strength of elastomers
Gent, A. N., & Tobias, R. H. (1982) · Journal of Polymer Science Polymer Physics Edition · doi:10.1002/pol.1982.180201107 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Theory and analysis of peel adhesion: Rate-temperature dependence of viscoelastic interlayers
Kaelble, D. H. (1964) · Journal of Colloid Science · doi:10.1016/0095-8522(64)90041-8 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Nakajima, T., Fukuda, Y., Kurokawa, T., et al. (2013) · ACS Macro Letters · doi:10.1021/mz4002047 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Stephenson, R. A. (1982) · Journal of Elasticity · doi:10.1007/bf00043706 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Influence of Molecular Features on the Tackiness of Acrylic Polymer Melts
Lakrout, H., Creton, C., Ahn, D., et al. (2001) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma0020279 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Self-citationActivation and deactivation of self-healing in supramolecular rubbers
Maes, F., Montarnal, D., Cantournet, S., et al. (2011) · Soft Matter · doi:10.1039/c2sm06715c · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Mechanism for the action of tackifying resins in pressure‐sensitive adhesives
Sherriff, M., Knibbs, R. W., & Langley, P. G. (1973) · Journal of Applied Polymer Science · doi:10.1002/app.1973.070171114 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Rate-dependent elastic hysteresis during the peeling of pressure sensitive adhesives
Villey, R., Creton, C., Cortet, P.-P., et al. (2015) · Soft Matter · doi:10.1039/c5sm00260e · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Self-citationRate-dependent frictional adhesion in natural and synthetic gecko setae
Gravish, N., Wilkinson, M., Sponberg, S., Parness, A. J., Esparza, N., Soto, D. R., Yamaguchi, T., Broide, M. L., Cutkosky, M. R., Creton, C., et al. (2009) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2009.0133 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Self-citationMolecular Weight Effects in Chain Pullout
Creton, C., Brown, H. R., & Shull, K. R. (1994) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma00090a010 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Self-citationFinite strains at the tip of a crack in a sheet of hyperelastic material: I. Homogeneous case
Geubelle, P. H., & Knauss, W. G. (1994) · Journal of Elasticity · doi:10.1007/bf00115539 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Adhesion between a Viscoelastic Material and a Solid Surface
Saulnier, F., Ondarçuhu, T., Aradian, A., & Raphaël, É. (2004) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma021759t · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Knowles, J. C., & Sternberg, E. (1974) · Journal of Elasticity · doi:10.1007/bf00049265 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Adhesion between Elastic Bodies with Randomly Rough Surfaces
Persson, B. N. J. (2002) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.89.245502 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Effects of chain pull-out on adhesion of elastomers
Brown, H. R. (1993) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma00059a027 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Effect of Cross-Linking on Tack and Peel Strength of Polymers
Zosel, A. (1991) · The Journal of Adhesion · doi:10.1080/00218469108026514 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Dérail, C., Allal, A., Marin, G., et al. (1997) · The Journal of Adhesion · doi:10.1080/00218469708010519 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Crack Propagation in a Linearly Viscoelastic Strip
Mueller, H. K., & Knauss, W. G. (1971) · Journal of Applied Mechanics · doi:10.1115/1.3408801 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Fracture of a biopolymer gel as a viscoplastic disentanglement process
Baumberger, T., Caroli, C., & Martina, D. (2006) · The European Physical Journal E · doi:10.1140/epje/i2006-10048-6 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
A critical local energy release rate criterion for fatigue fracture of elastomers
Mzabi, S., Berghezan, D., Roux, S., et al. (2011) · Journal of Polymer Science Part B Polymer Physics · doi:10.1002/polb.22338 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Micromechanisms of Tack of Soft Adhesives Based on Styrenic Block Copolymers
Brown, K., Hooker, J. C., & Creton, C. (2002) · Macromolecular Materials and Engineering · doi:10.1002/1439-2054(20020301)287:3 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Self-citationAutumn, K., Niewiarowski, P. H., & Puthoff, J. B. (2014) · Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics · doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-120213-091839 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Kinetics of ultrasonic and transient elongational flow degradation: a comparative study
Nguyen, T. Q., Liang, Q. Z., & Kausch, H. (1997) · Polymer · doi:10.1016/s0032-3861(96)00950-0 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Micromechanics of crack growth into a craze in a polymer glass
Hui, C., Ruina, A. L., Creton, C., et al. (1992) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma00041a018 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Self-citationPeel adhesion and viscoelasticity of rubber–resin blends
Aubrey, D. W., & Sherriff, M. (1980) · Journal of Polymer Science Polymer Chemistry Edition · doi:10.1002/pol.1980.170180818 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Peykova, Y., Lebedeva, O. V., Diethert, A., et al. (2011) · International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives · doi:10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2011.12.001 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Cavitation in elastomeric solids: I—A defect-growth theory
Lopez‐Pamies, O., Idiart, M. I., & Nakamura, T. (2011) · Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids · doi:10.1016/j.jmps.2011.04.015 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
The adhesive contact of viscoelastic spheres
Haïat, G., Huy, M. C. P., & Barthel, É. (2002) · Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids · doi:10.1016/s0022-5096(02)00059-5 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Kean, Z. S., Hawk, J. L., Lin, S., Zhao, X., Sijbesma, R. P., & Craig, S. L. (2014) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.201401570 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Cavitation in rubber: an elastic instability or a fracture phenomenon?
Lefèvre, V., Ravi‐Chandar, K., & Lopez‐Pamies, O. (2014) · International Journal of Fracture · doi:10.1007/s10704-014-9982-0 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Effect of Peel Load on Stringiness Phenomena and Peel Speed of Pressure-Sensitive Adhesive Tape
URAHAMA, Y. (1989) · The Journal of Adhesion · doi:10.1080/00218468908048213 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Recent advances in silicone pressure-sensitive adhesives
Lin, S. B., Durfee, L. D., Ekeland, R. A., et al. (2007) · Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology · doi:10.1163/156856107781192274 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Peel adhesion. I. Some phenomenological aspects of the test
Gardon, J. L. (1963) · Journal of Applied Polymer Science · doi:10.1002/app.1963.070070219 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Elastic Breakup in Uniaxial Extension of Entangled Polymer Melts
Wang, Y., Boukany, P. E., Wang, S., et al. (2007) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.99.237801 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Cavity growth in soft adhesives
Chiche, A., Dollhofer, J., & Creton, C. (2005) · The European Physical Journal E · doi:10.1140/epje/i2004-10148-3 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Self-citationLarge-Strain Mechanical Behavior of Model Block Copolymer Adhesives
Creton, C., Hu, G., Deplace, F., Morgret, L. D., & Shull, K. R. (2009) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/ma900821k · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Self-citationDeplace, F., Rabjohns, M. A., Yamaguchi, T., Foster, A. B., Carelli, C., Lei, C.-H., Ouzineb, K., Keddie, J. L., Lovell, P. A., & Creton, C. (2009) · Soft Matter · doi:10.1039/b815292f · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Self-citationRole of Interfacial Resistance to Shear Stress on Adhesive Peel Strength
Amouroux, N., Petit, J., & Léger, L. (2001) · Langmuir · doi:10.1021/la010146r · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Hild, F., Bouterf, A., & Roux, S. (2015) · International Journal of Fracture · doi:10.1007/s10704-015-0004-7 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Autonomic self-healing in covalently crosslinked hydrogels containing hydrophobic domains
Tuncaboylu, D. C., Arğun, A., Algı, M. P., & Okay, O. (2013) · Polymer · doi:10.1016/j.polymer.2013.09.051 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Anisotropic hydrogel based on bilayers: color, strength, toughness, and fatigue resistance
Haque, M. A., Kurokawa, T., & Gong, J. P. (2012) · Soft Matter · doi:10.1039/c2sm25670c · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Adhesive and Rheological Properties of Lightly Crosslinked Model Acrylic Networks
Lindner, A., Lestriez, B., Mariot, S., et al. (2006) · The Journal of Adhesion · doi:10.1080/00218460600646594 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Adhesion: role of bulk viscoelasticity and surface roughness
Lorenz, B., Krick, B. A., Mulakaluri, N., Smolyakova, M. Y., Dieluweit, S., Sawyer, W. G., & Persson, B. N. J. (2013) · Journal of Physics Condensed Matter · doi:10.1088/0953-8984/25/22/225004 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Cavitation for incompressible anisotropic nonlinearly elastic spheres
Polignone, D. A., & Horgan, C. O. (1993) · Journal of Elasticity · doi:10.1007/bf00042634 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Hydrogel Bioink Reinforcement for Additive Manufacturing: A Focused Review of Emerging Strategies
Chimene, D., Kaunas, R., & Gaharwar, A. K. (2020) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.201902026 · Cited by 600 · see citing works
50th Anniversary Perspective: Networks and Gels: Soft but Dynamic and Tough
Creton, C. (2017) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/acs.macromol.7b01698 · Cited by 463 · see citing works
Self-citationBioinspired Underwater Adhesives
Fan, H., & Gong, J. P. (2021) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202102983 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
Adjacent cationic–aromatic sequences yield strong electrostatic adhesion of hydrogels in seawater
Fan, H., Wang, J., Tao, Z., Huang, J., Rao, P., Kurokawa, T., & Gong, J. P. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-13171-9 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Fiber‐Reinforced Viscoelastomers Show Extraordinary Crack Resistance That Exceeds Metals
Cui, W., King, D. R., Huang, Y., Chen, L., Sun, T. L., Guo, Y., Saruwatari, Y., Hui, C., Kurokawa, T., & Gong, J. P. (2020) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.201907180 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Adherens junctions as molecular regulators of emergent tissue mechanics
Campàs, O., Noordstra, I., & Yap, A. S. (2024) · Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology · doi:10.1038/s41580-023-00688-7 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Data-driven de novo design of super-adhesive hydrogels
Liao, H., Hu, S., Yang, H., Wang, L., Tanaka, S., Takigawa, I., Li, W., Fan, H., & Gong, J. P. (2025) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09269-4 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
- Authors
- Creton, C., & Ciccotti, M.
- Affiliations
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- Corresponding author
- Creton, Costantino
- Ciccotti, Matteo
- Venue
- Reports on Progress in Physics
- Publisher
- IOP Publishing
- Published
- 2016-03-23
- Volume
- 79
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 046601
- ISSN
- 0034-4885 (ISSN-L)
- 1361-6633
- OpenAlex
- W2304094067
- Cited by
- 915
- References
- 352
- Citations by year
- 2026: 127 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 115 · 2023: 103 · 2022: 93 · 2021: 111 · 2020: 86 · 2019: 71 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 16
- FWCI
- 49.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hal.science
- Licence
- Locations
- Reports on Progress in Physics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanics of Materials › Adhesion, Friction, and Surface Interactions
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Advanced Materials and Mechanics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanics of Materials › Fatigue and fracture mechanics
- Keywords
- soft materials, fracture, adhesion, pressure-sensitive adhesives, gels, rubber fracture, stress localization, fracture energy, polymer physics, fracture mechanism
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review