Cited by 500Stellar, planetary, and galactic studiesSolar and Space Plasma DynamicsAstronomy and Astrophysical Research

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SUPERFLARES ON SOLAR-TYPE STARS OBSERVED WITH KEPLER . I. STATISTICAL PROPERTIES OF SUPERFLARES

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Shibayama, Takuya, Maehara, Hiroyuki, Notsu, Shota, Notsu, Yuta, Nagao, Takashi, Honda, Satoshi, Ishii, Takako T., Nogami, Daisaku, Shibata, Kazunari·2013·The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series

DOI 10.1088/0067-0049/209/1/5

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Abstract

By extending our previous study by Maehara et al., we searched for superflares on G-type dwarfs (solar-type stars) using Kepler data for a longer period (500 days) than that (120 days) in our previous study. As a result, we found 1547 superflares on 279 G-type dwarfs, which is much more than the previous 365 superflares on 148 stars. Using these new data, we studied the statistical properties of the occurrence rate of superflares, and confirmed the previous results, i.e., the occurrence rate ( dN / dE ) of superflares versus flare energy ( E ) shows a power-law distribution with dN / dE ∝ E −α , where α ∼ 2. It is interesting that this distribution is roughly similar to that for solar flares. In the case of the Sun-like stars (with surface temperature 5600–6000 K and slowly rotating with a period longer than 10 days), the occurrence rate of superflares with an energy of 10 34 –10 35 erg is once in 800–5000 yr. We also studied long-term (500 days) stellar brightness variation of these superflare stars and found that in some G-type dwarfs the occurrence rate of superflares was extremely high, ∼57 superflares in 500 days (i.e., once in 10 days). In the case of Sun-like stars, the most active stars show a frequency of one superflare (with 10 34 erg) in 100 days. There is evidence that these superflare stars have extremely large starspots with a size about 10 times larger than that of the largest sunspot. We argue that the physical origin of the extremely high occurrence rate of superflares in these stars may be attributed to the existence of extremely large starspots.

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Maehara, H., Shibayama, T., Notsu, Y., Notsu, S., Honda, S., Nogami, D., & Shibata, K. (2015) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921316000065 · Cited by 4
“Bolometric energy released by each flare was estimated67 from the flare amplitude, flare duration, and stellar luminosity with the same manner68 as Shibayama et al. (2013).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation
X-ray and UV emission of the ultrashort-period, low-mass eclipsing binary system BX Trianguli
Perdelwitz, V., Czesla, S., Robrade, J., Pribulla, T., & Schmitt, J. H. M. M. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834116 · Cited by 3
“…emitting area and total energy of the two flares (t1 = 3.4 ks and t2 = 29 ks after the start of the EPIC observations) we followed the approach of Shibayama et al. (2013) and estimated the area as A f lare = C′f lare π ∫ ∞ 0 Rλ ( R21 Bλ(T1) + R 2 2 Bλ(T2) ) dλ∫ ∞ 0 Rλ Bλ(T f lare) dλ (2) where…”
Influential
Learning Transient Universe in Near-ultraviolet by Wide-angle Cameras
Wang, J., Liang, E. W., & Wei, J. Y. (2019) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific · doi:10.1088/1538-3873/ab2749 · Cited by 3
Explorations of Extreme Space Weather Events from Stellar Observations and Archival Investigations
Hayakawa, H., Notsu, Y., & Ebihara, Y. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-7765-7_11 · Cited by 4
Self-citation
Occurrence rate of stellar Type II radio bursts from a 100 star-year search for coronal mass ejections
Konijn, D. C., Vedantham, H. K., Tasse, C., Shimwell, T. W., Hardcastle, M. J., Callingham, J. R., Ilin, E., Drabent, A., Zarka, P., van der Tak, F. F. S., et al. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202554317 · Cited by 2
“From the so derived minimum detectable equivalent duration (Gershberg 1972), we derived a bolometric energy following the procedure in Shibayama et al. 2013, and assuming a blackbody temperature of 10 , 000 K.”
Exploring stellar activity in a sample of active M dwarfs
Rajpurohit, A. S., Kumar, V., Srivastava, M. K., Labadie, L., Rajpurohit, K., & Fernández-Trincado, J. G. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202554816 · Cited by 5
“Previous studies have shown that α is negative, indicating that high-energy flares are less frequent than their low-energy counterparts (Shibayama et al. 2013).”
Influential
Observation of scale-free complex network behavior in the solar magnetic field along the 23rd solar cycle
Castillo, M. S., Muñoz, V., & Calderón, F. A. (2025) · Chaos An Interdisciplinary Journal of Nonlinear Science · doi:10.1063/5.0282290 · Cited by 2
Optical Continuum Light Curves and Bolometric Energy Estimates of Solar White-light Flares
Cai, Y., Hou, Y., Ding, H., Li, T., & Liu, J. (2026) · Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1088/1674-4527/ae3a65 · Cited by 2
Comprehensive Analyses of Cumulative Frequency Distributions for Solar X-Ray Flares
Yoldaş, E., & Dal, H. A. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ae2d16 · Cited by 2
“Extensive analyses of modern observational data over the past five decades have established that solar flare energies span a range from 10 28 to 10 33 erg ( R. E. Gershberg 2005; M. J. Aschwanden 2011; C. J. Schrijver et al. 2012; T. Shibayama et al. 2013; A. O. Benz 2017 ) .”
Molecular Hydrogen Controls the Temperatures of Flares on TRAPPIST-1
Shapiro, A. I., Костогрыз, Н. М., Seager, S., Witzke, V., de Wit, J., Vasilyev, V., Veronig, A., Cameron, R. H., Peter, H., & Solanki, S. K. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ae328b · Cited by 4
“In practice, this value is routinely adopted when converting flare amplitudes measured in broad photometric passbands, such as those of Kepler and TESS, into estimates of the bolometric radiative energy (see, e.g., Shibayama et al. 2013; Notsu et al. 2019; Günther et al. 2020; Vasilyev et al. 2024).”
Solar and stellar flares and their impact on planets
Shibata, K. (2015) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921316006323 · Cited by 3
“…(with energy of 1033-1035 erg) were discovered in solar type stars (G-type main sequence stars) without hot Jupiters, especially in Sun-like stars whose surface temperature and rotation periods are similar to those of the Sun (Maehara et al. 2011, Shibayama et al. 2013, Notsu et al. 2013b).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citation
Multiwavelength approach to classifying transient events in the direction of M 31
Soraisam, M., Гильфанов, М. Р., Kupfer, T., Prince, T. A., Masci, F., Laher, R. R., & Kong, A. K. H. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201732068 · Cited by 2
“Thus, with its energy exceeding 1033 erg, this event of V07979 can be classified as a superflare (e.g. Shibayama et al. 2013; Chang et al. 2015).”
Background
Recurrent Nova V2487 Oph Had Superflares in 1941 and 1942 with Radiant Energies of 1042.5±1.6 erg
Schaefer, B. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad4705 · Cited by 2
“This new class of variables has been con ﬁ rmed with many excellent light curves from the Kepler and TESS spacecrafts ( Maehara et al. 2012, 2015; Shibayama et al. 2013; Nogami et al. 2014; Tu et al. 2020 ) Attention has been concentrated on these Sunlike super ﬂ are stars, with implications for…”
Background
Comparing the Sun to Sun-like stars
Herbst, K., Amazo-Gómez, E. M., & Papaioannou, A. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452999 · Cited by 4
Starspot Activity and Superflares on Solar-type Stars
Maehara, H. (2016) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921317003945 · Cited by 2
Self-citation
Statistical Study of Solar White-light Flares and Comparison with Superflares on Solar-type Stars
Namekata, K., Sakaue, T., Watanabe, K., Asai, A., Maehara, H., Notsu, Y., Notsu, S., Honda, S., Ishii, T. T., Ikuta, K., et al. (2018) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921318001126 · Cited by 2
“Interestingly, they also discovered large WLFs, called “superflares”, on solar-type stars (G-type main sequence stars) whose energies (1033−36 erg) are 10–10,000 times larger than those of the maximum solar flares (∼ 1032 erg; Maehara et al. 2012, Shibayama et al. 2013).”
Self-citation
Magnetic Activity Discrepancies of Solar-Type Stars Revealed byKeplerLight Curves
He, H., Wang, H., Yan, Y., & Yun, D. (2017) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921317007670 · Cited by 2
“This star was selected from a superflare star catalog compiled by Shibayama et al. (2013) using the Kepler observations.”
Method
Factors That Determine the Power-law Index of an Energy Distribution of Solar Flares
Kawai, T., & Imada, S. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac6aca · Cited by 2
“Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI. variable (1.6 α 2.7; e.g., Kashyap et al. 2002; Maehara et al. 2012; Shibayama et al. 2013; Wu et al. 2015).”
BackgroundInfluential
Evidence of a flare ignited above a low-latitude spotted active region in the ultrafast rotator HK Aqr
González, M. J. M., Ramos, A. A., Gonzalez-Fernandez, C., Alemán, T. D. P., Montes, D., Luna, M., Felipe, T., Pozuelo, S. E., & Leitzinger, M. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2612 · Cited by 2
Ultra long-term cosmology and astrophysics
Scherrer, R. J., & Loeb, A. (2022) · New Astronomy · doi:10.1016/j.newast.2022.101940 · Cited by 2
Space Weather at Earth and in Our Solar System
Lugaz, N. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-814334-6.00012-1 · Cited by 2
Kepler-411 Star Activity: Connection between Starspots and Superflares
Araújo, A., & Válio, A. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac3767 · Cited by 16
“Shibayama et al. (2013) studied superflares in solar-type stars using Kepler data for a longer time period (500 days).”
Method
Simultaneous photometric and CARMENES spectroscopic monitoring of fast-rotating M dwarf GJ 3270. Discovery of a post-flare corotating featurePreprint
Johnson, E. N., Czesla, S., Fuhrmeister, B., Schöfer, P., Shan, Y., Guillén, C. C., Reiners, A., Jeffers, S. V., Lalitha, S., Luque, R., et al. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202040159 · Cited by 12
The Effects of Oscillations and Collisions of Emerging Bipolar Regions on the Triggering of Solar Flares
Boocock, C., Kusano, K., & Tsiklauri, D. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aba61a · Cited by 1
“Statistics of stellar super-flares is discussed in Shibayama et al. (2013).”
Background
CzeV502 - an M Dwarf Near the Leo Triplet with Very Strong Flares
Liška, J., Hudec, R., Mikulášek, Z., Zejda, M., Janík, J., & Štrobl, J. (2022) · Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica · doi:10.22201/ia.01851101p.2022.58.01.12 · Cited by 1
A Be star that turned bright and blue during a major outburst
Gao, Q., Wang, W., Baade, D., Liu, J., Rivinius, T., Arcos, C., de Almeida, E. S. G., Yuan, H., Bai, Y., Jankov, S., et al. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452792 · Cited by 1
Characterizing Temperatures of Flares on the M Dwarf Wolf 359 from Simultaneous Multiband Optical Observations
Lin, C.-L., Huang, L.-C., Hou, W.-J., Hsiao, H.-Y., & Ip, W.-H. (2025) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ae0c0a · Cited by 3
“…the detection of energetic superflares across a broad range of stellar types, from A-type to L-type dwarfs (Maehara et al. 2012; Balona 2012; Shibayama et al. 2013; Hawley et al. 2014; Wu et al. 2015; Gizis et al. 2017; Chang et al. 2018; Yang & Liu 2019; Lin et al. 2019; Paudel et al.…”
The largest ground-based catalogue of M-dwarf flares
Lavrukhina, A. D., Demkov, B. P., Malanchev, K. L., Pruzhinskaya, M. V., & Ishida, É. E. O. (2026) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stag145 · Cited by 1
Magnetic Activities of GJ 1151: Flares in TESS Data and Radio Observation in uGMRT
Ram, D., Mondal, S., Tej, A., Baug, T., Das, R., Patra, D., Ghosh, S., & Kumbhakar, R. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae145a · Cited by 1
mauvesim : the instrument simulator software for the Blue Skies Space Mauve satellite
Saba, A., Favata, F., Savini, G., Tinetti, G., Bradley, L., Stotesbury, I., & Tessenyi, M. (2025) · RAS Techniques and Instruments · doi:10.1093/rasti/rzaf045 · Cited by 2
The Impact of Space Weather on Earth’s Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate: Is N 2 O a Solution to the Faint Young Sun Paradox?
Biasiotti, L., Simonetti, P., Locci, D., Cecchi-Pestellini, C., Vladilo, G., Calderone, L., Dogo, F., Monai, S., & Ivanovski, S. L. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae200a · Cited by 1
“Modeling and observational evidence ( e.g., T. Shibayama et al. 2013; V. Airapetian et al. 2016a; A16; V. Airapetian 2016 ) suggests that the early Sun ( � 0.7 Gyr ) produced Carrington-like flare events ( superflares ) with energies of ∼ 10 33 erg, occurring ∼ 250 times per day.”
Influential
Flares and superflares on the southern active binary CC Eri
Leitzinger, M., Odert, P., Greimel, R., Kábath, P., Lipták, J., Guenther, E. W., Heinzel, P., Gajdoš, P., Ornik, M., Wollmann, J., et al. (2025) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staf1993 · Cited by 2
Diversity in Evolutionary Status and Magnetic Activity among Solar-type Twin Detached Eclipsing Binaries
Meng, F., Zhu, L.-Y., Qian, S.-B., Li, L.-J., Mkrtichian, D. E., Liu, N.-P., Dervişoğlu, A., Zhao, E.-G., Soonthornthum, B., Zvyagintsev, S., et al. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ae3c9d · Cited by 1
New Approach to Superflare Energy Determination
Heinzel, P., Falewicz, R., Bicz, K., & Preś, P. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ae4331 · Cited by 1
“Particularly energetic events—so-called superflares with energies exceeding 10 33 erg—have been observed, with the most extreme cases reaching or surpassing 10 36 erg (Schaefer et al. 2000; Maehara et al. 2012; Shibayama et al. 2013; G¨unther et al. 2020; Pietras et al. 2022).”
Influential
The Solar-like Latitudinal Distribution of Flaring Activities Revealed by TESS, APOGEE, and GALAH
Yang, H., Liu, S., Huang, Y., Zhang, B., & Liu, J. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ae50ec · Cited by 1
“…the flare energy by assuming a flare radiated as a blackbody with an effective temperature of 9000 K per unit area, and the flare area was estimated based on the flare amplitude, the stellar radius, the stellar effective temperature, and the TESS response function (T. Shibayama et al. 2013).”
Rossby-scaled saturation and multiple flare regimes in late type stars
Yoldaş, E., Dal, H. A., & Özdarcan, O. (2026) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stag1064 · Cited by 1

Authors: Shibayama, T., Maehara, H., Notsu, S., Notsu, Y., Nagao, T., Honda, S., Ishii, T. T., Nogami, D., & Shibata, K.
Affiliations: Kyoto University (JP)
University of Hyogo (JP)
Corresponding author: Shibayama, Takuya
ORCID: Notsu, Shota
Notsu, Yuta
Nogami, Daisaku
Venue: The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
Publisher: American Astronomical Society
Published: 2013-10-17
Volume: 209
Issue: 1
Pages: 5
ISSN: 0067-0049 (ISSN-L)
1538-4365
DOI: 10.1088/0067-0049/209/1/5
OpenAlex: W2052980643
Cited by: 500
References: 43
Citations by year: 2026: 26 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 71 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 19
FWCI: 13.86
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: iopscience.iop.org/info/page/text-and-data-mining (tdm)
iopscience.iop.org/page/copyright (vor)
Locations: The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series (publishedVersion)
arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
arXiv (Cornell University)
Funders: Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (25287039)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Solar and Space Plasma Dynamics
Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Instrumentation › Astronomy and Astrophysical Research
Keywords: superflares, solar-type stars, flare occurrence rate, flare energy distribution, power-law distribution, stellar brightness variations, stellar activity, stellar spots, stellar magnetic activity

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SUPERFLARES ON SOLAR-TYPE STARS OBSERVED WITH KEPLER . I. STATISTICAL PROPERTIES OF SUPERFLARES

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