Cited by 500Stellar, planetary, and galactic studiesSolar and Space Plasma DynamicsAstronomy and Astrophysical Research

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SUPERFLARES ON SOLAR-TYPE STARS OBSERVED WITH KEPLER . I. STATISTICAL PROPERTIES OF SUPERFLARES

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Shibayama, Takuya, Maehara, Hiroyuki, Notsu, Shota, Notsu, Yuta, Nagao, Takashi, Honda, Satoshi, Ishii, Takako T., Nogami, Daisaku, Shibata, Kazunari·2013·The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series

DOI 10.1088/0067-0049/209/1/5

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Abstract

By extending our previous study by Maehara et al., we searched for superflares on G-type dwarfs (solar-type stars) using Kepler data for a longer period (500 days) than that (120 days) in our previous study. As a result, we found 1547 superflares on 279 G-type dwarfs, which is much more than the previous 365 superflares on 148 stars. Using these new data, we studied the statistical properties of the occurrence rate of superflares, and confirmed the previous results, i.e., the occurrence rate ( dN / dE ) of superflares versus flare energy ( E ) shows a power-law distribution with dN / dE ∝ E −α , where α ∼ 2. It is interesting that this distribution is roughly similar to that for solar flares. In the case of the Sun-like stars (with surface temperature 5600–6000 K and slowly rotating with a period longer than 10 days), the occurrence rate of superflares with an energy of 10 34 –10 35 erg is once in 800–5000 yr. We also studied long-term (500 days) stellar brightness variation of these superflare stars and found that in some G-type dwarfs the occurrence rate of superflares was extremely high, ∼57 superflares in 500 days (i.e., once in 10 days). In the case of Sun-like stars, the most active stars show a frequency of one superflare (with 10 34 erg) in 100 days. There is evidence that these superflare stars have extremely large starspots with a size about 10 times larger than that of the largest sunspot. We argue that the physical origin of the extremely high occurrence rate of superflares in these stars may be attributed to the existence of extremely large starspots.

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Определение запятненности звезд солнечного типа со сверхмощными вспышками
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Antarctic TianMu Staring Observation Project I: overview and implementation of the prototype telescope
Zhou, D., Zhong, J., Shi, J., Tang, Z., Shen, S., Jiang, P., Zhu, J., Yu, Y., Zheng, L., Cao, J., et al. (2025) · Astronomical Techniques and Instrument · doi:10.3724/ati2025059
“…(2012), gamma-ray bursts Piran (2004), supernovae Adams et al. (2013), tidal disruption events of stars by massive black holes Komossa (2015), extremely bright X-ray bursts Soderberg et al. (2008), superflare stars Shibayama et al. (2013); Yang & Liu (2019), and classical novae Bode & Evans (2008).”
Flare Activity and Magnetic Feature Analysis of the Flare Stars. III. K-type Dwarf Binary Components
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A stellar prominence eruption associated with a white-light flare on an M dwarf observed simultaneously by LAMOST and TESS
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“Many superflares have been reported on a large number of solar-type stars (Maehara et al. 2012; Shibayama et al. 2013; Maehara et al. 2015; Notsu et al. 2019; Okamoto et al. 2021; G¨unther et al. 2020; Feinstein et al. 2020; Tu et al. 2021; Jackman et al. 2021; Namekata et al. 2022b,c; Pietras et…”
Self-citation
Flaring Behavior in the M Dwarf PM J11183+1347 from TESS Observations
Mwanzia, D. M., Kumbhakar, R., Mondal, S., Lata, S., Okeng'o, G. O., Ghosh, S., & Buers, J. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae4c4a
“We determined the energy by using the procedure described by T. Shibayama et al. ( 2013 ) and R. Kumbhakar et al. ( 2023 ) , where the flare energy is computed using the stellar luminosity, amplitude, flare duration, and equivalent duration ( ED ) .”
Simulation of the Martian diffuse auroral emissions and photochemistry induced by solar energetic particles
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Flaring Activity of Stars within 30 Parsecs from TESS Data for a Sample of Stars with X-ray Emission from the SRG/eROSITA Catalog
Gorbachev, M. A., Фяритович, Б. И., Khamitov, I., Гильфанов, М. Р., Sunyaev, R., & Medvedev, P. S. (2025) · Astronomy Letters · doi:10.1134/s1063773725700628
Determination of Starspot Coverage of Solar-Type Stars with Superflares
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KIC 6464285: A Solar-type Eclipsing Binary in a Hierarchical Triple System with Quasiperiodic Out-of-eclipse Modulations
Meng, F., Zhu, L., Qian, S.-B., Asfandiyarov, I. M., Matekov, A., Baltamuratov, J., Liao, W.-P., Luo, A.-L., Hou, W., Li, P. P., et al. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae677e
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Alvarado‐Gómez, J. D. (2024) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921324001169
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High-velocity blueshifts of Hα and Fe XXV Heα lines during superflares of the RS CVn-type stars
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Self-citation
Time-resolved spectroscopy of an active K-dwarf LQ Hydrae
Maehara, H., Namekata, K., Notsu, Y., Inoue, S., Ikuta, K., Honda, S., Nogami, D., & Shibata, K. (2024) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921324001145
Self-citation
Multiwavelength monitoring of stellar flares in the active eclipsing binary CU Cancri
Huang, J., Lu, H.-P., Zhang, L., Han, X. L., Zhang, J.-L., Shi, Y., & Zheng, J. (2026) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stag1088
Planet-induced Stellar Flare Candidates from the TESS Mission
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“To estimate the bolometric flare energy, we follow T. Shibayama et al. (2013).”
Revisiting Approaches to Stellar White-light Flare Energy Based on Spatiotemporally Resolved Solar Observations
Cai, Y., Hou, Y., Li, T., Li, Y., Ding, M. D., De-chao, S., Zeng, C., & Liu, J. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ae7d19
“For the Hfb continuum model (Sim˜oes et al. 2024) versus the traditional black-body model (Shibayama et al. 2013), the energy ratio can be analytically derived to be a constant ( ∼ 1 .”
Influential
Time-domain Anomalies in Solar and Stellar Flares
Belov, S. A., Kolotkov, D. Y., Mehta, A., & Hayes, L. A. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ae8193
“In this context, it is particularly interesting to explore whether rare and powerful events such as super flares (Maehara et al. 2012; Shibayama et al. 2013; Namekata et al. 2017; Vasilyev et al. 2024) exhibit anomalous temporal morphology.”
Probing the Magnetic Activity of GJ 398 through TESS Flare Detection and uGMRT Radio Observations
Ram, D., Mondal, S., Patra, D., Tej, A., Hoque, A., Ghosh, S., & Kumbhakar, R. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae89b6
“Earlier works such as T. Shibayama et al. ( 2013 ) and M. Kretzschmar ( 2011 ) primarily addressed G-type stars and solar flares, whereas more recent M dwarf focused studies consistently report higher flare temperatures, especially at flare peaks.”
Radiocarbon production and cosmic radiation events: current state of the evidence
Dee, M., Kuitems, M., Owens, M. J., & Pope, B. J. S. (2026) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rsta.2025.0262 · Cited by 1
Stellar flare activity in detached eclipsing binary systems observed by TESS
Putri, P. O. M. K., Lu, H., Zhang, L., Su, T., & Shi, Y. (2026) · New Astronomy · doi:10.1016/j.newast.2026.102652
Fractional-Poisson structure of Kepler flare stars: waiting-time statistics, active-region rate distributions
Акопян, А. А., & Sargsyan, G. O. (2026) · Astrophysics · doi:10.1007/s10511-026-09968-4
Large-sample Statistics of Flares in Eclipsing Binaries Based on TESS and Gaia Data
Chen, Y., Qian, S.-B., Zhu, L.-Y., Zhou, X. B., Meng, F., & Zhao, E.-G. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ae9bbd
“The result from T. Shibayama et al. ( 2013 ) was derived based on a group of G dwarfs, and here we take the highest slope.”
The Connection between Flares and Starspots on M Dwarfs Based on TESS Photometry
Wang, C., Wang, J., He, Y., Sun, H., Pan, Y., Zhou, X., Li, S., & Yirong, M. A. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aeaa56
“…with energies exceeding 10 33 erg, have been extensively studied in solar-type stars and compact objects using Kepler and Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite ( TESS ) photometric observations ( H. Maehara et al. 2012; T. Shibayama et al. 2013; Z.-L. Tu et al. 2021; K. Xing et al. 2024 ) .”
Stellar Parameters and Magnetic Activity of Eruptive Variable Stars Based on TESS Light Curves and the LAMOST Spectral Survey
Wang, Y., Zhang, L., Su, T., Han, X. L., & Misra, P. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aea83e
“Kepler established homogeneous flare searches over long time baselines and revealed flare-energy and flare-frequency distributions for many active stars ( H. Maehara et al. 2012; T. Shibayama et al. 2013; S. L. Hawley et al. 2014; H. Yang & J. Liu 2019 ) .”

Authors: Shibayama, T., Maehara, H., Notsu, S., Notsu, Y., Nagao, T., Honda, S., Ishii, T. T., Nogami, D., & Shibata, K.
Affiliations: Kyoto University (JP)
University of Hyogo (JP)
Corresponding author: Shibayama, Takuya
ORCID: Notsu, Shota
Notsu, Yuta
Nogami, Daisaku
Venue: The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
Publisher: American Astronomical Society
Published: 2013-10-17
Volume: 209
Issue: 1
Pages: 5
ISSN: 0067-0049 (ISSN-L)
1538-4365
DOI: 10.1088/0067-0049/209/1/5
OpenAlex: W2052980643
Cited by: 500
References: 43
Citations by year: 2026: 26 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 71 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 19
FWCI: 13.86
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: iopscience.iop.org/info/page/text-and-data-mining (tdm)
iopscience.iop.org/page/copyright (vor)
Locations: The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series (publishedVersion)
arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
arXiv (Cornell University)
Funders: Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (25287039)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Solar and Space Plasma Dynamics
Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Instrumentation › Astronomy and Astrophysical Research
Keywords: superflares, solar-type stars, flare occurrence rate, flare energy distribution, power-law distribution, stellar brightness variations, stellar activity, stellar spots, stellar magnetic activity

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SUPERFLARES ON SOLAR-TYPE STARS OBSERVED WITH KEPLER . I. STATISTICAL PROPERTIES OF SUPERFLARES

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