A review of energy harvesting using piezoelectric materials: state-of-the-art a decade later (2008–2018)

“One of the original works on piezoelectric nanogenerators was presented by Wang and Song in 2006 [107].”

“This article, as an extension to the authors’ former review article [1], summarizes the published work on the topic of piezoelectric energy harvesting over the past 11 years (from 2008 to 2018).”

“Most of the original works on mathematical modeling of piezoelectric energy harvesting utilized simple single degree of freedom lumped parameter modeling approaches [22, 279, 280].”

“Energy harvesting has the potential to extend the working life of electronics and offers particular application to inaccessible electronics or those subject to costly maintenance, such as sensory nodes in remote locations, implanted health trackers, biomedical devices [3, 4], and large-scale sensor networks [5–7].”

“The reader is referred to the reviews by Harne and Wang in 2013 [20] and Daqaq et al in 2014 [243] for more examples of research in nonlinear piezoelectric energy harvesting.”

“Much of the recent research on the topic of lead-free piezoelectric material is summarized in the review articles by Panda [55], Rodel [89], and Maurya [90], as well as a book by Priya and Nahm [56].”

“Erturk and Inman also presented an accurate analytical distributed parameter model for a unimorph piezoelectric cantilever harvester [145], which has become widely accepted by the energy harvesting community.”

“Another nonlinear energy harvester design was presented by Cottone et al [217] using a bistable piezoelectric inverted pendulum device.”

“Bryant and Garcia in 2011 [329, 330] expanded upon the work presented by Tan and Panda [326] by developing an aeroelastic flutter energy harvester containing a rigid flap connected to a piezoelectric cantilever harvester through a ball bearing revolute joint (figure 9(b)).”

“Badel et al [293] and Guyomar et al in 2005 [294] added an inductor to the circuit between”

“Using beams with nonrectangular profiles, such as triangle-shaped beams [148, 149] (figure 3(b)) and trapezoidal cross section beams [150], the”

“Analytical modeling and experimentation under chirp and band-limited white noise excitation showed that an output power density of 0.33 mW cm−3 could be harvested, which was significantly higher than the power density of the bistable systems introduced by Mann and Owens [227], Stanton et al [198], Erturk et al [228],…”

“Analytical modeling and experimentation under chirp and band-limited white noise excitation showed that an output power density of 0.33 mW cm−3 could be harvested, which was significantly higher than the power density of the bistable systems introduced by Mann and Owens [227], Stanton et al [198], Erturk et al [228],…”

“Dagdeviren et al [409] Mechanical energy”

“Most of the original works on mathematical modeling of piezoelectric energy harvesting utilized simple single degree of freedom lumped parameter modeling approaches [22, 279, 280].”

“One of the first surveys on the possibility of energy harvesting from the human body to power wearable devices was presented by Starner in 1996 [374].”

“Analytical modeling and experimentation under chirp and band-limited white noise excitation showed that an output power density of 0.33 mW cm−3 could be harvested, which was significantly higher than the power density of the bistable systems introduced by Mann and Owens [227], Stanton et al [198], Erturk et al [228],…”

“The reader is referred to the reviews by Harne and Wang in 2013 [20] and Daqaq et al in 2014 [243] for more examples of research in nonlinear piezoelectric energy harvesting.”

“Various piezoelectric MEMS energy harvesting designs including (a) thin-film PZT cantilever (reprinted from [244], Copyright 2005, with permission from Elsevier), (b) high aspect ratio beam (reprinted from [245], Copyright 2006, with permission from Elsevier), (c) cantilever array (reprinted from [246], Copyright 2008…”

“In order to improve the original lumped-parameter models, researchers began to investigated distributed parameter models utilizing the Rayleigh-Ritz discretization, which gives more accurate solutions [279, 281, 282].”

“In order to improve the original lumped-parameter models, researchers began to investigated distributed parameter models utilizing the Rayleigh-Ritz discretization, which gives more accurate solutions [279, 281, 282].”

“As an improvement to simple switching converters, an important concept was introduced by Lefeuvre et al in 2005 [292] in the form of the synchronous electric charge extraction (SECE) concept.”

“Originally, the application of prestressed beams [192, 193] and attractive/repulsive magnetic forces [194] were suggested to adjust the resonant frequency of the harvester.”

“Hwang et al in 2015 [427] presented a piezoelectric footstep energy harvester consisting of an upper plate, a middle plate with piezoelectric modules, and a fixed bottom plate with four supporting springs (figure 15(a)).”

“While these models were useful to give insight into the behavior of piezoelectric energy harvesting, their predictions ignored aspects of the electromechanical coupling of piezoelectric systems, and could only predict the first vibration mode [146].”

“Reprinted, with permission, from [351]) (b) fluttering flag (© 2004 IEEE.”

“As an improvement to simple switching converters, an important concept was introduced by Lefeuvre et al in 2005 [292] in the form of the synchronous electric charge extraction (SECE) concept.”

“Given the growing application of piezoelectric ceramics in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), PZT thin films have been developed to capitalize upon the small scale to achieve flexibility [60], as well as the use of grain texturing [61] and epitaxial thin films on substrates [62] to improve coupling.”

“One of the early works on wearable energy harvesting devices was presented by Paradiso’s research group at MIT Media Laboratories in 1998 [377, 378], in which piezoelectrics were integrated into shoes.”

“In 2014, Zhou et al [199] presented a triple-well nonlinear piezoelectric energy harvester consisting of a piezoelectric beam with a tip magnet and two external magnets with a unique arrangement compared to traditional bistable systems (figure 5(e)).”

“Espinosa et al [133] focuses on the characterization of nanomaterial properties and the performance of various nanomaterials, while Brisco and Dunn [134] focus their review on nanogenerator devices and material architecture.”

“Xu et al in 2010 [126] used the hydrothermal growth process developed by Lin et al [127] to grow vertically aligned PZT nanowires.”

“The reader is referred to the comprehensive reviews of MEMS piezoelectric harvesting presented by Saadon and Sidek in 2011 [21], Priya et al in 2017 [263], and Tian et al in 2018 [264] as well as the book by Kottapalli et al in 2019 [265] for a more complete treatment of the field.”

“vibration energy harvesting can be used include civil infrastructure such as buildings and bridges [27, 28], aerospace systems [29–33], and the human body [34, 35].”

“Originally, the application of prestressed beams [192, 193] and attractive/repulsive magnetic forces [194] were suggested to adjust the resonant frequency of the harvester.”

“Arrieta et al in 2010 [200] suggested the application of a bistable piezoelectric composite plate for nonlinear energy harvesting.”

“Analytical modeling and experimentation under chirp and band-limited white noise excitation showed that an output power density of 0.33 mW cm−3 could be harvested, which was significantly higher than the power density of the bistable systems introduced by Mann and Owens [227], Stanton et al [198], Erturk et al [228],…”

“All rights reserved), (d) PZN-PT piezoelectric-electromagnetic harvester (reproduced with permission from [458] by SAGE Publications, Ltd), (e) double-ended piezoelectricelectromagnetic harvester (reprinted by permission from Springer Nature: [Springer] [Microsystem technologies] [459] © 2015), and (f) triboelectric-p…”

“Various piezoelectric MEMS energy harvesting designs including (a) thin-film PZT cantilever (reprinted from [244], Copyright 2005, with permission from Elsevier), (b) high aspect ratio beam (reprinted from [245], Copyright 2006, with permission from Elsevier), (c) cantilever array (reprinted from [246], Copyright 2008…”

“Research in this area has led to a broad range of active piezoelectric devices utilizing both fibers (Active Fiber Composites (AFC) [103] and Macro-Fiber Composites (MFC) [104]) and particles (0–3 composites).”

“The reader is referred to the comprehensive reviews of MEMS piezoelectric harvesting presented by Saadon and Sidek in 2011 [21], Priya et al in 2017 [263], and Tian et al in 2018 [264] as well as the book by Kottapalli et al in 2019 [265] for a more complete treatment of the field.”

“Many of the works performed on nanofiber piezoelectric energy harvesters are summarized in review articles by Chang et al in 2012 [132], Espinosa et al in 2012 [133], and Brisco and Dunn in 2015 [134].”

“If this is the case, a buck-boost converter, which combines the functionality of both the buck and the boost converter, may be employed [291].”

“Orrego et al in 2017 [349] proposed a flexible piezoelectric membrane placed in an inverted flag orientation where the trailing edge of the flag is fixed and the leading edge is free to move [350].”

“mechanical boundary conditions and different beam configurations, including designs with a dynamic amplifier support instead of a fixed end [151] (figure 3(c)), an asymmetric tuned mass [152] (figure 3(d)), clamped-clamped boundary conditions with compressive load [150], multiple inertia masses [153, 154], added auxil…”

“Lu et al in 2009 [120] demonstrated p-type ZnO nanowires that could switch the Schottky barrier to produce a positive rather than negative voltage.”

“33 mW cm could be harvested, which was significantly higher than the power density of the bistable systems introduced by Mann and Owens [227], Stanton et al [198], Erturk et al [228], Tang et al [229], and Arrieta et al [200].”

“Erturk et al in 2010 first introduced the concept of piezoaeroelastic systems (those that couple piezoelectricity and aeroelasticity) [344].”

“Karami and Inman in 2012 [34] investigated energy harvesting from heartbeat vibration using a nonlinear piezoelectric energy harvester to power pacemakers.”

“Akaydin et al in 2010 [332] investigated the energy harvesting performance of a PVDF bimorph located in the wake of a cylinder at high Reynolds numbers subjected to turbulent flow (figure 9(c)).”

“developing lower temperature fabrication methods and alternative substrate materials, and improving texturing of electrodes [63].”

“In 2014, Zhou et al [199] presented a triple-well nonlinear piezoelectric energy harvester consisting of a piezoelectric beam with a tip magnet and two external magnets with a unique arrangement compared to traditional bistable systems (figure 5(e)).”

“Kong et al in 2010 [303] developed an impedance matching circuit that combined a standard diode rectifier with a buck-boost converter operating in discontinuous conduction mode.”

“wrist watch, similar to the system commercially used in Seiko Kinetic wrist watches, but with lower friction [389].”

“Following the work of Priya et al [316, 317], an optimized windmill harvester with a much simpler design was proposed by Myers et al in 2007 [318] (figure 8(b)).”

“Various flutter-style harvesters including (a) flutter stalk (reprinted from [328], with the permission of AIP Publishing), (b) flap with revolute joint (reproduced from [330].”

“61 mW peak Bryant et al [329] Rigid flap with revolute joint Bimorph PZT 283.”

“Other adaptations to the synchronized switching concept include double synchronized switch harvesting (DSSH) presented by Lallart et al in 2008 [296], enhanced synchronized switch harvesting (ESSH) presented by Shen et al in 2010 [297], synchronized switch harvesting on inductor using magnetic rectifier (SSHI-MR) pres…”

“Espinosa et al [133] focuses on the characterization of nanomaterial properties and the performance of various nanomaterials, while Brisco and Dunn [134] focus their review on nanogenerator devices and material architecture.”

“The reader is referred to the review articles by Guyomar and Lallart in 2011 [310] and Szarka et al in 2012 [311] as well as the book chapters by Badel and Lefeuvre in 2016 [305], and Chen in 2019 [312] for a more comprehensive review on piezoelectric energy harvesting conditioning circuits.”

“Impact driven mechanisms have also been suggested by Gu and Livermore in 2011 [170, 171] and Halim and Park in 2014 [167] that include a compliant driving beam which periodically impacts one or two piezoelectric beams in order to excite the generator beams at their resonant frequency (figure 3(h)).”

“Various piezoelectric wearable harvesters including (a) shoe harvester with a slider mechanism (reprinted from [380], with the permission of AIP Publishing), (b) shoe harvester with wavy structure (reproduced from [382].”

“Phononic crystals and acoustic metamaterials are the most reported metamaterials for piezoelectric energy harvesting [266].”

“Expanding upon the work of Granstrom et al Feenstra et al in 2008 [385] investigated a backpack that used a mechanically amplified piezoelectric stack installed in the strap to harvest electrical power during walking (figure 12(c)).”

“Similarly, in 2010, Rocha et al [379] presented a shoe harvester design consisting of PVDF polymers and an electrostatic harvester integrated into the sole of a shoe.”

“In order to improve the original lumped-parameter models, researchers began to investigated distributed parameter models utilizing the Rayleigh-Ritz discretization, which gives more accurate solutions [279, 281, 282].”

“Phononic crystals are made of periodic distributions of inclusions embedded in a matrix exhibiting absolute acoustic band gaps and negative refraction, which can be used for mechanical filtering as well as to focus traveling elastic waves in specific directions [267].”

“Leadfree piezoelectric materials consist of three main compositional families including titanate-based, alkaline niobate perovskitebased, and bismuth perovskite-based materials [87].”

“Recently, Gao et al in 2018 [59] developed a PNN-PZT (0.”

“In 2009, Shen et al [247] reduced the resonant frequency of a PZT-based silicon oxide wafer cantilever harvester to below 200 Hz.”

“mechanical boundary conditions and different beam configurations, including designs with a dynamic amplifier support instead of a fixed end [151] (figure 3(c)), an asymmetric tuned mass [152] (figure 3(d)), clamped-clamped boundary conditions with compressive load [150], multiple inertia masses [153, 154], added auxil…”

“Orrego et al in 2017 [349] proposed a flexible piezoelectric membrane placed in an inverted flag orientation where the trailing edge of the flag is fixed and the leading edge is free to move [350].”

“A similar design was proposed by Tadesse et al in 2009 [458], in which PZN-PT crystals were attached to a cantilever beam with a tip magnet and a stationary coil (figure 18(d)).”

“More recently, a novel nonlinear approach to enhance the piezoelectric energy harvesting performance of beams and plates was proposed by Zhao et al in 2015 [196, 205] by utilizing acoustic black holes (ABHs) to design a dynamically tailored structure.”

“Alternatively, a DC-DC switching converter known as a step-down converter or buck converter can be used for an improved solution [290].”

“Zhang et al in 2018 [433] 42 investigated the energy harvesting performance of piezoelectric bimorphs tuned to the natural frequency of bridges and of coupled vehicle-bridge systems (figure 15(f)).”

“Society of Photo Optical Instrumentation Engineers), (c) piezoelectric-electromagnetic harvester (reproduced from [457].”

“The original work on piezoelectric energy harvesting using a windmill-style device was presented by Priya et al in 2005 [316, 317] (shown in figure 8(a)).”

“Reprinted, with permission, from [165]), (g) snap-through mechanism (reprinted from [166], with the permission of AIP Publishing), (h) compliant driving beam (reprinted from [167], Copyright 2014, with permission from Elsevier) and (i) impact driven mechanism (© 2012 IEEE.”

“The reader is referred to the review articles by Guyomar and Lallart in 2011 [310] and Szarka et al in 2012 [311] as well as the book chapters by Badel and Lefeuvre in 2016 [305], and Chen in 2019 [312] for a more comprehensive review on piezoelectric energy harvesting conditioning circuits.”

“All rights reserved), (c) wake harvester (reproduced with permission from [332] by SAGE Publications, Ltd), (d) T-shaped harvester (reprinted from [333], with the permission of AIP Publishing), (e) beam with cylindrical extension (© 2013 IEEE.”

“Other adaptations to the synchronized switching concept include double synchronized switch harvesting (DSSH) presented by Lallart et al in 2008 [296], enhanced synchronized switch harvesting (ESSH) presented by Shen et al in 2010 [297], synchronized switch harvesting on inductor using magnetic rectifier (SSHI-MR) pres…”

“In another study by Wu et al in 2009 [270], a PVDF piezoelectric film was placed in the cavity of a sonic crystal (local defect created by removing a rod from a perfect sonic crystal) to convert acoustic energy to electric energy at the resonant frequency of the cavity (figure 7(b)).”

“Dai et al [341] Cantilever with cylindrical tip mass (combined vortex-induced and base excitation) Bimorph PZT 267 × 32.”

“All rights reserved), (f) bridge traffic harvester (reprinted from [433], Copyright 2018, with permission from Elsevier), and (g) roadway harvester (reprinted from [434], Copyright 2017, with permission from Elsevier).”

“In order to enhance the stub-plate structure with defect proposed by Carrara et al [272], Qi et al in 2016 [275] proposed a concept to scavenge airborne acoustic waves in the direction perpendicular to the plate using a planar acoustic metamaterial structure.”

“In a work by Xie and Wang in 2015 [443],”

“Zhang et al [386] Fabric Joint motion Hybrid fiber-based”

“One of the initial works on metamaterial energy harvesting was introduced by Gonella et al in 2009 [269], where a honeycomb lattice structure with a microstructure consisting of periodically distributed stiff piezoelectric cantilevers was proposed, and the interplay between phononic bandgaps and piezoelectric microstr…”

“Jung et al in 2017 [434] proposed a PVDF energy harvester for roadway applications which presents an energy conversion performance comparable to piezoelectric ceramic-based harvesters.”

“Badel et al [293] and Guyomar et al in 2005 [294] added an inductor to the circuit between the harvester and the rectifier and named the technique synchronized switch harvesting on inductor (SSHI).”

“Several researchers have presented such approximate solutions, including duToit et al in 2005 [279], who model a symmetric bimorph with a Rayleigh-Ritz type approximation, Elvin and Elvin in 2009 [287], who model a unimorph with an approximate Rayleigh-Ritz formulation, and Erturk and Inman 2010 [288], who present an…”

“Using beams with nonrectangular profiles, such as triangle-shaped beams [148, 149] (figure 3(b)) and trapezoidal cross section beams [150], the”

“Various alternative piezoelectric energy harvesters including (a) self-powered credit card-sized sensor node (reprinted from [470], Copyright 2011, with permission from Elsevier), (b) self-powered flexible light-emitting device (reproduced from [471] with permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry), and (c) friction…”

“More recently, in 2017, the concept of energy harvesting from ocean waves using multistable mechanisms was introduced by Younesian and Alam [364], and the stability characteristics of a simple buoy-generator-restoring spring system were well discussed.”

“Another MEMS piezoelectric energy harvester was suggested by Yu et al in 2014 [256].”

“Various piezoelectric MEMS energy harvesting designs including (a) thin-film PZT cantilever (reprinted from [244], Copyright 2005, with permission from Elsevier), (b) high aspect ratio beam (reprinted from [245], Copyright 2006, with permission from Elsevier), (c) cantilever array (reprinted from [246], Copyright 2008…”

“Yang et al in 2016 [82] reported similar conclusions on the energy harvesting performance of single crystal piezoelectric devices compared to PZT-based ceramics.”

“KGaA, Weinheim), (e) PZT-based flexible heart harvester (reproduced from [408].”

“vesting from sound waves can be found in the review by Choi et al in 2019 [465].”

“Zhang et al in 2018 [433] 42 investigated the energy harvesting performance of piezoelectric bimorphs tuned to the natural frequency of bridges and of coupled vehicle-bridge systems (figure 15(f)).”

“Another limitation in the application of PZTs is the limited working temperature of these materials due to phase instability and depolarization in high temperature applications, such as advanced energy generation systems and turbine engines [95].”

“All rights reserved), (f) elliptical acoustic mirror with embedded spheres (reprinted from [273], with the permission of AIP Publishing), (g) Luneburg lens (reprinted from [274], with the permission of AIP Publishing), (h) planar acoustic metamaterial structure (reprinted from [275], with the permission of AIP Publish…”

“The impedance matching technique has also been applied to the buck converter topology by Kim et al in 2007 [304].”

“Lee and Choi in 2014 [445] developed another piezoelectric non-”

“Energy harvesting from multi-axis vibration has also been suggested using an S-shaped harvester [182] and a novel three-axis harvester design [183] (figure 4(e)).”

“Similar findings have been reported by other researchers on the energy available for harnessing from the human body [375, 376].”

“In addition to silver, Shih et al in 2014 [117] demonstrated the use of lithium in nanogenerators that produced open circuit voltages as high as 180 V.”

“Impact driven mechanisms have also been suggested by Gu and Livermore in 2011 [170, 171] and Halim and Park in 2014 [167] that include a compliant driving beam which periodically impacts one or two piezoelectric beams in order to excite the generator beams at their resonant frequency (figure 3(h)).”

“Wahbah et al in 2014 [395] also showed that”

“Another flow energy harvester design consisting of a cross-flow PZT cantilever beam with a cylindrical extension was presented by Gao et al in 2013 [325] (figure 9(e)).”

“Dhakar et al in 2013 [172] suggested a simple frequency upconversion mechanism using a soft spring with a proof mass attached to the tip of a piezoelectric cantilever beam.”

“All rights reserved), (h) buckled spring-mass system (reproduced from [202].”

“Moure et al [437] Cymbal harvester Roads Vehicle traffic Cymbal NCE51 (PZT-5A) 30 000 cymbals of 30 mm”

“In the work by Won et al in 2019 [255], a flexible piezoelectric MEMS beam harvester was developed using PZT thin film with a LaNiO3 (LNO) buffer layer deposited on an ultra-thin NiCr-based austenitic steel metal foil substrate (figure 6(m)).”

“Various piezoelectric devices for energy harvesting from sea and rain including (a) piezoelectric-buoy harvester (reproduced with permission from [359]), (b) transverse wave harvester (reprinted from [360], Copyright 2014, with permission from Elsevier), (c) longitudinal wave harvester (reprinted from [361], Copyright…”

“Liu et al in 2008 [109] performed a study using ultraviolet irradiation to tune the conductivity, and thus the carrier density, of the ZnO NW to evaluate the characteristics of the Schottky barrier at the interface between the metal electrode and the NW.”

“Later in 2013, Li et al [160, 161] utilized a quarter-wavelength straight tube resonator with multiple piezoelectric plates placed inside the tube to harvest energy from traveling sound at low audible frequency.”

“More recently, Jeong et al in 2017 [412] fabricated a flexible”

“Author Device Energy Source Transducer Configuration Generator Material Dimensions Car Speed/ Excitation Output Power Khameneifar and Arzanpour [438] Tire harvester Tire deflection Bimorph Mide Technology harvester 14 transducers of 92×43.8×9.9 mm3 50 km h−1 42 mW Singh et al [439] Tire harvester Tire deflection Bimor…”

“Using an L-shaped beam-mass structure, Cao et al in 2015 [203] achieved a two-to-one internal resonance mechanism for nonlinear energy harvesting (figure 5(i)).”

“Batteries are considered conventional energy sources yet suffer from several limitations, such as limited lifespan and power efficiency as well as limited energy storage capacity, which necessitates frequent recharging [2].”

“An L-shaped beam-mass structure was also utilized by Chen et al in 2016 [232] to explore the feasibility of using the nonlinear modal interaction found in the internal resonance to improve the frequency bandwidth of energy harvesters as well as to study the effect of system parameters on the bandwidth.”

“In the study performed by Wang and Ko in 2010 [354], this group investigated the ability of a PVDF film to harvest energy from the fluctuations of pressure created by a pump in a fluid system.”

“Other adaptations to the synchronized switching concept include double synchronized switch harvesting (DSSH) presented by Lallart et al in 2008 [296], enhanced synchronized switch harvesting (ESSH) presented by Shen et al in 2010 [297], synchronized switch harvesting on inductor using magnetic rectifier (SSHI-MR) pres…”

“A novel windmill harvester design using impactinduced resonance of piezoelectric beams was presented by Yang et al in 2014 [314].”

“Later in 2013, Li et al [160, 161] utilized a quarter-wavelength straight tube resonator with multiple piezoelectric plates placed inside the tube to harvest energy from traveling sound at low audible frequency.”

“Various rotary harvesters [158, 159], acoustic resonator harvesters [160, 161], and piezomagnetic nonlinear harvesters [162, 163] are examples of devices with beam generators.”

“Later in 2011 [345], this group enhanced the aeroelastic energy harvesting of a similar system by introducing combined piezoelectricaeroelastic nonlinearities to the system.”

“vibration energy harvesting can be used include civil infrastructure such as buildings and bridges [27, 28], aerospace systems [29–33], and the human body [34, 35].”

“The concept of piezoelectric grass, an array of vertical piezoelectric cantilever beams to harvest energy from turbulence induced vibration (figure 9(g)), was introduced by Hobeck and Inman in 2012 [335].”

“Usman et al [339] Two cylinders wake galloping Unimorph MFC film 85 × 30 × 0.”

“However, microelectronic devices require such lately developing energy harvesting technologies [5,6].”