The DOI matches its Crossref record; 44 of the 44 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 6 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Internet-Related Behaviors and Psychological Distress Among Schoolchildren During the COVID-19 School Hiatus
Open accessAbstract
= 2,026; mean [standard deviation] age = 10.71 years [1.07]; 1,011 [49.9 percent] girls) in Sichuan, China completed a cross-sectional online survey, and this study was approved by the ethics committee of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (IRB ref: HSEARS20190718001). The Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form, Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, and Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale were used to assess problematic gaming, social media use, and smartphone use. The Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale-21 was used to assess distress, and an item rated on a 0-10 scale was included to assess fear of being infected by COVID-19. Fear of being infected by COVID-19 was assessed because this could be a confounding variable in the association between psychological distress and screen time use. Increased time spent on gaming, social media, and smartphones was associated with greater problematic gaming, problematic social media use, problematic smartphone use, and psychological distress, but was not associated with fear of COVID-19 infection. Mediation analyses showed that problematic gaming, problematic social media use, and problematic smartphone use were significant mediators in the association between psychological distress and increased time spent on Internet-related activities during the COVID-19 outbreak period. Children who had psychological distress during COVID-19 outbreak might have spent longer time on Internet-related activities due to the school hiatus and problematic use of Internet-related activities. Parents/caregivers are recommended to monitor their children's use of Internet while encouraging children to engage in positive activities to ease the concern of negative psychological responses during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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23 Own result · 12 Own method · 9 Own interpretation · 5 Not checked yet · 1 No basis given
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During the school hiatus period, 23.7% of the participants increased their time spent in gaming; 38.9% increased time spent using social media; 49.9% increased time spent using smartphones; 49.0% increased time spent watching television; 53.9% increased time spent exercising; and 69.8% increased time spent reading/studying.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During the school hiatus period, 23.7% of the participants increased their time spent in gaming; 38.9% increased time spent using social media; 49.9% increased time spent using smartphones; 49.0% increased time spent watching television; 53.9% increased time spent exercising; and 69.8% increased time spent reading/studying.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During the school hiatus period, 23.7% of the participants increased their time spent in gaming; 38.9% increased time spent using social media; 49.9% increased time spent using smartphones; 49.0% increased time spent watching television; 53.9% increased time spent exercising; and 69.8% increased time spent reading/studying.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During the school hiatus period, 23.7% of the participants increased their time spent in gaming; 38.9% increased time spent using social media; 49.9% increased time spent using smartphones; 49.0% increased time spent watching television; 53.9% increased time spent exercising; and 69.8% increased time spent reading/studying.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first three mediation analyses (Figure 1) showed that problematic gaming was a significant mediator in the association between psychological distress (depression, anxiety, and stress) and increased gaming time during the school hiatus.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, the children reported that their fear of COVID-19 infection was less than 5 (out of 10).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, 45% of participants who spent increased time on studying reported less time spent on smartphones.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This appears to be true for gaming and social media use because the present study's results indicated that 75% of participants who spent increased time on studying reported less time spent gaming, and 58% of participants who spent increased time on studying reported less time spent on social media.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Increased time spent on gaming, social media, and smartphones was associated with greater problematic gaming, problematic social media use, problematic smartphone use, and psychological distress but was not associated with fear of COVID-19 infection.”
plaincorrelationaln = 2,026- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The final three mediation analyses (Figure 3) showed that problematic smartphone use was a significant mediator in the association between psychological distress (depression, anxiety, and stress) and increased smartphone use time during the school hiatus.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- Probably not a substantial claim. 8
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Students (n=2026; mean [SD] age=10.71years [1.07]; 1011 [49.9%] girls) in Sichuan, China completed a cross-sectional online survey.”
plainn = 2,026- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Increased time spent on gaming, social media, and smartphones was associated with greater problematic gaming, problematic social media use, problematic smartphone use, and psychological distress but was not associated with fear of COVID-19 infection.”
plaincorrelationaln = 2,026- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, children who increased their time reading/studying or exercising showed less problematic use of internet-related activities and less psychological distress during school hiatus.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, children who increased their time reading/studying or exercising showed less problematic use of internet-related activities and less psychological distress during school hiatus.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fear of COVID-19 infection was weakly and significantly correlated with IGDS-SF9 (r=0.096),BSMAS (r=0.058),depression (r=0.137),anxiety (r=0.117),stress (r=0.124), and not significantly correlated to SABAS (r=0.043;Table 3).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fear of COVID-19 infection was weakly and significantly correlated with IGDS-SF9 (r=0.096),BSMAS (r=0.058),depression (r=0.137),anxiety (r=0.117),stress (r=0.124), and not significantly correlated to SABAS (r=0.043;Table 3).”
plain- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. The quote only partly states this claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The internal consistency of the Chinese DASS-21 in the present study was good (α=0.820for depression subscale; 0.778 for anxiety subscale; and 0.813 for stress subscale).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, the mediation effects were only partial and the mediators might not substantially impact the direct effect between psychological distress and screen time.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Some increased usage may be due to the need for online learning and getting social support on top of staying home for long periods of time.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Without the information, the present study cannot conclude whether the present participants did not concern COVID-19 because of lacking related experience.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, the present study was cross-sectional without longitudinal follow-up to confirm possible cause-and-effect relationships.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, participants in this study were recruited from a single province in China, and therefore the findings may not be fully generalized to other provinces countries undergoing the same public health crisis.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, these negative impacts were associated with increased time on gaming and the use of social media and smartphone (rather than the fear of COVID-19) which may lead to problematic use of these internet-related activities.45”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the participants in the present sample were significantly older than the entire population in the three schools (t=29.87 and p<.001) 4 .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given that the large sample size in the present study might make t-tests with a negligible difference significant, effect sizes (ESs) using Cohen's d were calculated to capture the difference magnitude: 0.2 indicates small; 0.5 is moderate; and 0.8 is large 40 ).”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Furthermore, children may have sense of achievement when they complete schoolwork or exercise, and this sense of achievement may subsequently elevate their satisfaction, resulting in positive psychological effects 42,43 .”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All nine models shared the same controlled variables of age, gender, and fear of COVID-19 infection.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, the present study did not ask information regarding whether schoolchildren's family members or friends were at risk of death from COVID-19.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Third, the outcome measures were based on children's self-report.Although the scales used have very good psychometric properties, 8,21,26- 39 the lack of objective measures (i.e., objective indices of time spent on internet-related behaviors and objective/structured diagnoses of depression and anxiety) is still a potential limitation of this study.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“More importantly, this finding may reflect that the supervision and support from parents/caregivers was not sufficient when children are experiencing school habitus and suggests the need for better coping strategies in such situations.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Participants answered the COVID-19 questions based on the moment they completed the survey.
“No time frame was provided in relation to the COVID-19 questions because it was assumed that participants would answer these based on the moment that they completed the survey.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The single 0-10 item adequately measures fear of being infected by COVID-19.
“an item rated on a 0-10 scale was included to assess fear of being infected by COVID-19.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The reported increases in time spent on activities are attributable to COVID-19.
“The COVID-19related items (answered yes/no) were (i)”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“In general, studies reported that social media use increased during the Covid-19 pandemic (36, 47, 56, 60, 62), including the usage of a variety of social media platforms (e.g., Instagram, Snapchat, TikTok).”
From Digital Media Use and Adolescents' Mental Health During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [62]
In the citing paper
“In addition, young people showed less increment in Internet-related activities and lower psychological distress when involved in structured activities (37) or spent more time reading, studying or exercising (62).”
From Digital Media Use and Adolescents' Mental Health During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [62]
In the citing paper
“That would end up in the experience of negative emotions due to the loss of control over online activities and the search for more frequent gratifications online (62).”
From Digital Media Use and Adolescents' Mental Health During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [62]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Discussion
“the fear of being infected by COVID-19 did not impact on any noticeable changes concerning increased time or problematic gaming, problematic social media use and problematic smartphone use given the weak significant correlations with small effect sizes (i.e., between 0.117 and 0.137).”
§ Results
“Fear of COVID-19 infection was weakly and significantly correlated with IGDS-SF9 (r=0.096),BSMAS (r=0.058),depression (r=0.137),anxiety (r=0.117),stress (r=0.124), and not significantly correlated to SABAS (r=0.043;Table 3).”
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“38,39 The timeframe used in the original DASS-21 (i.e., asking about psychological distress in the past week) was applied in the present study.”
Research works printed but not linked: 1
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“(56) found that problematic gaming, problematic social media use, and problematic smartphone use are important mediators of the association between psychological distress and increased time spent on Internet-related activities during the COVID-19 outbreak.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Chen, C.-Y., Chen, I.-H., Pakpour, A. H., Lin, C.-Y., & Griffiths, M. D.
- Affiliations
- Hong Kong Polytechnic University (HK)
- Krirk University (TH)
- Qazvin University of Medical Sciences (IR)
- Nottingham Trent University (GB)
- Venue
- Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2021-10-01
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 654-663
- ISSN
- 2152-2715 (ISSN-L)
- 2152-2723
- OpenAlex
- W3155259296
- Semantic Scholar
- 09c8445bcbf43e38415a7b1edaef4531a3df288a
- Cited by
- 105
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 18
- FWCI
- 28.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
- qums (Qazvin University of Medical Sciences) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
- Keywords
- psychological distress, elementary school students, gaming addiction, social media addiction, smartphone addiction, screen time, depression, anxiety, stress, fear of COVID-19 infection, mediation, children's internet use
- MeSH terms
- Psychological Distress, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Child, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Universities, Pandemics, Social Media
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