Chimpanzees, Warfare, and the Invention of Peace
Abstract
This chapter reviews the evidence for warlike behavior in chimpanzees and discusses what these findings can tell us about human warfare. It begins with a review of the behavioral ecology of aggression, continues with an overview of the behavioral ecology of intergroup aggression in chimpanzees, and concludes with discussion of the implications for understanding the origins of war and prospects for peace in humans.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Successful attacks on rival groups potentially increase the territory size of the in-group and the reproductive output of its members, thereby increasing fitness.
“Successful attacks on rival groups, however, potentially increase the territory size of the in-group and the reproductive output of its members (14, 15), thereby increasing fitness.”
From Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees (2017) · cites this paper as [14]
Chimpanzee group defense is energetically costly in terms of reduced foraging and increased traveling, and risky, as it may lead to injury or death.
“Chimpanzee group defense is energetically costly in terms of reduced foraging and increased traveling (14), and risky, as it may lead to injury or death (10).”
From Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees (2017) · cites this paper as [14]
Cites
On aims and methods of ethology
Tinbergen, N. (1963) · Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie · doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1963.tb01161.x · Cited by 4,551 · see citing works
The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior
Goodall, J. R. (1986) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 3,384 · see citing works
The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior
Mcbrearty, S., & Brooks, A. S. (2000) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1006/jhev.2000.0435 · Cited by 2,718 · see citing works
Natural language and natural selection
Pinker, S. A., & Bloom, P. (1990) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00081061 · Cited by 2,473 · see citing works
Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynolds, V., Sugiyama, Y., Tutin, C. E. G., Wrangham, R. W., & Boesch, C. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/21415 · Cited by 2,409 · see citing works
The better angels of our nature: why violence has declined
(2012) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.49-5144 · Cited by 2,406 · see citing works
Assessment strategy and the evolution of fighting behaviour.
Parker, G. A. (1974) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1016/0022-5193(74)90111-8 · Cited by 2,055 · see citing works
An Ecological Model of Female-Bonded Primate Groups
Wrangham, R. W. (1980) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/156853980x00447 · Cited by 1,978 · see citing works
The logic of asymmetric contests
Smith, J. M., & Parker, G. A. (1976) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/s0003-3472(76)80110-8 · Cited by 1,928 · see citing works
An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology
Royle, N. J. (2013) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.01.003 · Cited by 1,627 · see citing works
The Symbolic Species: The Co-Evolution of Language and the Brain
Unger, J. M., & Deacon, T. W. (1998) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.2307/329984 · Cited by 1,305 · see citing works
Crow, J. F. (1980) · Cell · doi:10.1016/0092-8674(80)90253-6 · Cited by 955 · see citing works
Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence.
Meilinger, P. S., Wrangham, R. W., Peterson, D., Keeley, L. H., & Keegan, J. (1997) · The Journal of Military History · doi:10.2307/2954037 · Cited by 701 · see citing works
Gat, A. (2006) · Cited by 684 · see citing works
Roaring and numerical assessment in contests between groups of female lions, Panthera leo
McComb, K., Packer, C., & Pusey, A. E. (1994) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1006/anbe.1994.1052 · Cited by 603 · see citing works
The Origins of Agriculture in the Near East
Zeder, M. A. (2011) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/659307 · Cited by 593 · see citing works
The social group of wild chimpanzees in the Mahali Mountains
Nishida, T. (1968) · Primates · doi:10.1007/bf01730971 · Cited by 521 · see citing works
Intergroup Relations in Chimpanzees
Wilson, M. L., & Wrangham, R. W. (2003) · Annual Review of Anthropology · doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.120046 · Cited by 512 · see citing works
Self-citationPerpetual peace, and other essays : on politics, history, and morals
Kant, I., & Humphrey, T. (1983) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 495 · see citing works
Intergroup Aggression in Chimpanzees and Humans [and Comments and Replies]
Manson, J. H., Wrangham, R. W., Boone, J. L., Chapais, B., Dunbar, R., Ember, C. R., Irons, W., Marchant, L. F., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., et al. (1991) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/203974 · Cited by 486 · see citing works
Wilson, M. L., HAUSER, M. D., & Wrangham, R. W. (2001) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1006/anbe.2000.1706 · Cited by 478 · see citing works
Self-citationDominance, aggression and testosterone in wild chimpanzees: a test of the ‘challenge hypothesis’
Muller, M. N., & Wrangham, R. W. (2003) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.03.013 · Cited by 478 · see citing works
Feeding Behaviour of Chimpanzees in Gombe National Park, Tanzania
Wrangham, R. W. (1977) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-176850-8.50022-6 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
Why do chimpanzees hunt and share meat?
Mitani, J. C., & Watts, D. P. (2001) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1006/anbe.2000.1681 · Cited by 451 · see citing works
Lethal intergroup aggression leads to territorial expansion in wild chimpanzees
Mitani, J. C., Watts, D. P., & Amsler, S. J. (2010) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2010.04.021 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
Savanna Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, Hunt with Tools
Pruetz, J. D., & Bertolani, P. (2007) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.12.042 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
The evolution of fatal fighting
Enquist, M., & Leimar, O. (1990) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/s0003-3472(05)80721-3 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
The First and Second Discourses
Rousseau, J., Masters, R. D., & Masters, J. R. (1969) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 394 · see citing works
Demography, female life history, and reproductive profiles among the chimpanzees of Mahale
Nishida, T., Hamai, M., Hasegawa, T., Hiraiwa‐Hasegawa, M., Hosaka, K., Hunt, K. D., Itoh, N., Kawanaka, K., Matsumoto–Oda, A., Mitani, J. C., et al. (2003) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.10068 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
BOUNDARY PATROLS AND INTERGROUP ENCOUNTERS IN WILD CHIMPANZEES
Watts, D., & Mitani, J. (2001) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/15685390152032488 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Noninvasive paternity assignment in Gombe chimpanzees
Constable, J. L., Ashley, M. V., Goodall, J. R., & Pusey, A. E. (2001) · Molecular Ecology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2001.01262.x · Cited by 388 · see citing works
The chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains : sexual and life history strategies
Nishida, T. (1990) · University of Tokyo Press eBooks · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Inbreeding avoidance in chimpanzees
Pusey, A. E. (1980) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/s0003-3472(80)80063-7 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
Wrangham, R. W., Conklin‐Brittain, N. L., & Hunt, K. D. (1998) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1023/a:1020318102257 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
Why do male chimpanzees defend a group range?
Williams, J. M., Oehlert, G. W., Carlis, J. V., & Pusey, A. E. (2004) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.09.015 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
Paternity and relatedness in wild chimpanzee communities
Vigilant, L., Hofreiter, M., Siedel, H., & Boesch, C. (2001) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.231320498 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Comparative rates of violence in chimpanzees and humans
Wrangham, R. W., Wilson, M. L., & Muller, M. N. (2006) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-005-0140-1 · Cited by 309 · see citing works
Self-citationMale dominance rank and reproductive success in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii.
Wroblewski, E. E., Murray, C. M., Keele, B. F., Schumacher-Stankey, J. C., Hahn, B. H., & Pusey, A. E. (2009) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.12.014 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
Group Extinction and Female Transfer in Wild Chimpanzees in the Mahale National Park, Tanzania
Nishida, T., Hiraiwa‐Hasegawa, M., Hasegawa, T., & Takahata, Y. (1985) · Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie · doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1985.tb01395.x · Cited by 306 · see citing works
Influence of Ecological and Social Factors on Body Mass of Wild Chimpanzees
Pusey, A. E., Oehlert, G. W., Williams, J. M., & Goodall, J. (2005) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-005-0721-2 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Population genetics of malaria resistance in humans
Hedrick, P. W. (2011) · Heredity · doi:10.1038/hdy.2011.16 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
The Chimpanzees of the Budongo Forest
Reynolds, V. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198515463.001.0001 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Male competition and paternity in wild chimpanzees of the Taï forest
Boesch, C., Kohou, G. N., Néné, H., & Vigilant, L. (2005) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.20341 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Infant Killing and Cannibalism in Free-Living Chimpanzees
Goodall, J. (1977) · Folia Primatologica · doi:10.1159/000155817 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
The chimpanzees of Kibale Forest : a field study of ecology and social structure
Ghiglieri, M. P. (1984) · Columbia University Press eBooks · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Cooperation in male lions: kinship, reciprocity or mutualism?
Grinnell, J., Packer, C., & Pusey, A. E. (1995) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/0003-3472(95)80157-x · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Agonistic relations among Kanyawara chimpanzees
Muller, M. N. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511606397.012 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Lethal intergroup aggression by chimpanzees in Kibale National Park, Uganda
Watts, D. P., Muller, M. N., Amsler, S. J., Mbabazi, G., & Mitani, J. C. (2006) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.20214 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Thompson, M. E., Kahlenberg, S. M., Gilby, I. C., & Wrangham, R. W. (2007) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.09.007 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Boesch, C., Crockford, C., Herbinger, I., Wittig, R., Moebius, Y., & Normand, E. (2008) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.20524 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Design complexity in termite-fishing tools of chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes )
Sanz, C., Call, J., & Morgan, D. (2009) · Biology Letters · doi:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0786 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
The socioecology of the ringtailed lemur: Thirty-five years of research
Sauther, M. L., Sussman, R. W., & Gould, L. (1999) · Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews · doi:10.1002/(sici)1520-6505(1999)8:4 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Contexts and social correlates of long-distance calling by male chimpanzees
Mitani, J. C., & Nishida, T. (1993) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1006/anbe.1993.1088 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
The evolution of lethal intergroup violence
Kelly, R. C. (2005) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0505955102 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Causes of death in the Kasekela chimpanzees of Gombe National Park, Tanzania
Williams, J. M., Lonsdorf, E. V., Wilson, M. L., Schumacher-Stankey, J. C., Goodall, J., & Pusey, A. E. (2008) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.20573 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Self-citationMan the hunted: Primates, predators, and human evolution
Gil-da-Costa, R. (2005) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.20415 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Chapman, C. A., & Wrangham, R. W. (1993) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.1350310403 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Intergroup Aggression in Primates and Humans: The Case for a Unified Theory
Crofoot, M. C., & Wrangham, R. W. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-02725-3_8 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Artificial feeding of chimpanzees and baboons in their natural habitat
Wrangham, R. W. (1974) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/s0003-3472(74)80056-4 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Kant, liberal legacies, and foreign affairs, part 2
Doyle, M. W. (2011) · Philosophy & Public Affairs · doi:10.4324/9780203804933-8 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Importance of cooperation and affiliation in the evolution of primate sociality
Sussman, R. W., Garber, P. A., & Cheverud, J. M. (2005) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.20196 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
The Chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba
Matsuzawa, T., Sugiyama, Y., & Humle, T. (2011) · Primatology monographs · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Ecological and social correlates of chimpanzee party size and composition
Mitani, J. C., Watts, D. P., & Lwanga, J. S. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511606397.011 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Female competition and male territorial behaviour influence female chimpanzees' ranging patterns
Williams, J. M., Pusey, A. E., Carlis, J. V., Farm, B. P., & Goodall, J. R. (2002) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1916 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Wilson, M. L., Kahlenberg, S. M., Wells, M. T., & Wrangham, R. W. (2011) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.11.004 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Self-citationKant, liberal legacies, and foreign affairs, part 1
Doyle, M. W. (2011) · doi:10.4324/9780203804933-7 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
New Cases of Intergroup Violence Among Chimpanzees in Gombe National Park, Tanzania
Wilson, M. L., Wallauer, W., & Pusey, A. E. (2004) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1023/b:ijop.0000023574.38219.92 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Contribution of Long‐Term Research at Gombe National Park to Chimpanzee Conservation
Pusey, A. E., Pintea, L., Wilson, M. L., Kamenya, S. M., & Goodall, J. R. (2007) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00704.x · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Self-citationRaiding parties of male spider monkeys: Insights into human warfare?
Aureli, F., Schaffner, C. M., Verpooten, J., Slater, K., & Ramos‐Fernández, G. (2006) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.20451 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Anthropology, archaeology, and the origin of warfare
Thorpe, I. J. (2003) · World Archaeology · doi:10.1080/0043824032000079198 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Chimpanzees in the dry habitats of Assirik, Senegal and Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda
Hunt, K. D., & McGrew, W. C. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511606397.005 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Cooperation and competition in chimpanzees: Current understanding and future challenges
Mitani, J. C. (2009) · Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews · doi:10.1002/evan.20229 · Cited by 156 · cited 3× · see citing works
“…observations from long-term study sites, it has become clear that intraspecifi c aggression constitutes a pervasive risk for chimpanzees (Mitani, 2009; Wilson & Wrangham, 2003), with intraspecifi c killings documented for 71 percent of study communities ( N = 17 communities at 10 sites;…”
BackgroundChimpanzees-red colobus monkeys: a predator-prey system
Boesch, C. (1994) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1006/anbe.1994.1152 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Evaluating the Nuclear Peace Hypothesis
Rauchhaus, R. W. (2009) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002708330387 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Herbinger, I., Papworth, S., Boesch, C., & Zuberbühler, K. (2009) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.09.010 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Correlates of territorial boundary patrol behaviour in wild chimpanzees
Mitani, J. C., & Watts, D. P. (2005) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.02.012 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Warless societies and the origin of war
(2001) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.39-0395 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
The origin of war : the evolution of a male-coalitional reproductive strategy
van der Dennen, J. M. G. (1995) · Cited by 129 · see citing works
The Egalitarians - Human and Chimpanzee
Power, M. M. (1991) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511565533 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Guatelli‐Steinberg, D., & Lukacs, J. R. (1999) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(1999)110:29+ · Cited by 127 · see citing works
The Social Market Roots of Democratic Peace
Mousseau, M. (2009) · International Security · doi:10.1162/isec.2009.33.4.52 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Energetic costs of territorial boundary patrols by wild chimpanzees
Amsler, S. J. (2009) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.20757 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Writing, Law, and Kingship in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia
Charpin, D., & Todd, J. M. (2010) · University of Chicago Press eBooks · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226101590.001.0001 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Gilby, I. C., Eberly, L. E., & Wrangham, R. W. (2007) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.06.008 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Paternity and social rank in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) from the Budongo Forest, Uganda
Newton‐Fisher, N. E., Thompson, M. E., Reynolds, V., Boesch, C., & Vigilant, L. (2009) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.21241 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Sex differences in chimpanzee dispersion
Wrangham, R. W. (1979) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Hierarchy and social status in Budongo chimpanzees
Newton‐Fisher, N. E. (2004) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-003-0064-6 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
CHIMPANZEE REPRODUCTION IN THE WILD
Tutin, C. E. G., & McGinnis, P. R. (1981) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-295020-9.50015-7 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Infanticide and cannibalism by male chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda
Watts, D. P., & Mitani, J. C. (2000) · Primates · doi:10.1007/bf02557646 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Gros-Louis, J. J., Perry, S., & Manson, J. H. (2003) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-003-0050-z · Cited by 117 · see citing works
The Pattern of Fighting in Simple, Small-Scale, Prestate Societies
Gat, A. (1999) · Journal of Anthropological Research · doi:10.1086/jar.55.4.3631615 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
The evolution of lactase persistence in Europe. A synthesis of archaeological and genetic evidence
Leonardi, M., Gerbault, P., Thomas, M., & Bürger, J. (2011) · International Dairy Journal · doi:10.1016/j.idairyj.2011.10.010 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Potts, K. B., Watts, D. P., & Wrangham, R. W. (2011) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-011-9494-y · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Wilson, M. L., HAUSER, M. D., & Wrangham, R. W. (2007) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/156853907782512137 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Self-citationSevere Aggression Among Female Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii at Gombe National Park, Tanzania
Pusey, A. E., Murray, C. M., Wallauer, W., Wilson, M. L., Wroblewski, E. E., & Goodall, J. R. (2008) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-008-9281-6 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Self-citationNew cases of inter-community infanticide by Male Chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda
Watts, D. P., Sherrow, H. M., & Mitani, J. C. (2002) · Primates · doi:10.1007/bf02629601 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Impact of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection on Chimpanzee Population Dynamics
Rudicell, R. S., Jones, J. H., Wroblewski, E. E., Learn, G. H., Li, Y., Robertson, J. D., Greengrass, E., Grossmann, F., Kamenya, S. M., Pintea, L., et al. (2010) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1001116 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Agricultural Demographic Transition During and After the Agriculture Inventions
Bocquet-Appel, J.-P. (2011) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/659243 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
A History of Research on Warfare in Anthropology
Otterbein, K. F. (1999) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1525/aa.1999.101.4.794 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Visible language : inventions of writing in the ancient Middle East and beyond
Woods, C., Emberling, G., & Teeter, E. (2010) · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Newton‐Fisher, N. E. (1999) · Folia Primatologica · doi:10.1159/000021690 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Fatal Chimpanzee Attack in Loango National Park, Gabon
Boesch, C., Head, J. S., Tagg, N., Arandjelovic, M., Vigilant, L., & Robbins, M. M. (2007) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-007-9201-1 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Kolb, R. W. (2008) · Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society · doi:10.4135/9781412956260.n314 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Terio, K. A., Kinsel, M. J., Raphael, J., Mlengeya, T., Lipende, I. F., Kirchhoff, C. A., Gilagiza, B., Wilson, M. L., Kamenya, S. M., Estes, J. D., et al. (2011) · Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine · doi:10.1638/2010-0237.1 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Self-citationDemocracy, Interdependence, and the Sources of the Liberal Peace
Gelpi, C. F., & Grieco, J. M. (2008) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343307084921 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Materialist, cultural and biological theories on why Yanomami make war
Ferguson, R. B. (2001) · Anthropological Theory · doi:10.1177/14634990122228647 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
The Myth of Man the Hunter, Man the Killer and the Evolution of Human Morality
Sussman, R. W. (1999) · Zygon® · doi:10.1111/0591-2385.00226 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Human collective aggression: A behavioral ecology perspective
Mesquida, C. G., & Wiener, N. I. (1996) · Ethology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1016/0162-3095(96)00035-0 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Population Growth, Carrying Capacity, and Conflict
Read, D., & LeBlanc, S. A. (2003) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/344616 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
The Nature of Human Aggression.
McClintock, R., Montagu, A., & Moscovici, S. (1977) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2064866 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Wakefield, M. L. (2008) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-008-9280-7 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Long-Term Research on Chimpanzee Behavioral Ecology in Kibale National Park, Uganda
Watts, D. P. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-22514-7_14 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Bisexually bonded ranging in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus)
Lehmann, J., & Boesch, C. (2005) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-004-0891-5 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Is the hidden hand an iron fist? Capitalism and civil peace, 1970-2005
de Soysa, I., & Fjelde, H. (2010) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343310362167 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
New Case of Intragroup Infanticide in the Chimpanzees of Gombe National Park
Murray, C. M., Wroblewski, E. E., & Pusey, A. E. (2007) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-006-9111-7 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Pusey, A. E., Wilson, M. L., & Collins, D. (2008) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.20567 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citationLethal intragroup aggression by adult male spider monkeys ( Ateles geoffroyi )
Campbell, C. J. (2006) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.20305 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
New Intercommunity Infanticides by the Chimpanzees of Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda
Sherrow, H. M., & Amsler, S. J. (2007) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-006-9112-6 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Bates, L. A., & Byrne, R. W. (2009) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-009-0841-3 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Warfare Is Only an Invention—Not a Biological Necessity
MEAD, M. (2015) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315664484-32 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Demographic influences on the behavior of chimpanzees
Mitani, J. C. (2005) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-005-0139-7 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Infanticide in chimpanzees: Taphonomic case studies from Gombe
Kirchhoff, C. A., Wilson, M. L., Mjungu, D. C., Raphael, J., Kamenya, S. M., & Collins, D. (2017) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.23335 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citationRetaliatory Violence in Human Prehistory
Boehm, C. (2011) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azr020 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Evolutionary Psychological Foundations of Civil Wars
Kanazawa, S. (2009) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1017/s0022381608090026 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Dynamics of intergroup competition in two neighboring chimpanzee communities
Mjungu, D. C. (2010) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) · Cited by 48 · see citing works
The context of female dispersal in Kanyawara chimpanzees
Müller, Thompson, M. E., Stumpf, R. M., & Wrangham (2009) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/156853909x413853 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Kutsukake, N., & Matsusaka, T. (2002) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.10058 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Comparison of behavioral sequence of copulation between chimpanzees and bonobos
Hashimoto, C., & Furuichi, T. (2005) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-005-0144-x · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Towards a Critical Theory of Democratic Peace
Hobson, C. (2011) · Review of International Studies · doi:10.1017/s0260210510001634 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Keil, P. L., & Watson, P. J. (2010) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.07.013 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The culture of war: invention and early development
(1991) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.28-4515 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
10,000 Years of Tribal Warfare: History, Science, Ideology and 'The State of Nature'
Ferguson, R. B. (2001) · II - University of Michigan. International Institute/The journal of the International Institute · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Learning to Live Together: Preventing Hatred and Violence in Child and Adolescent Development
Freeman, R. (2004) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.329.7463.466-a · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Wilson, M. L., Boesch, C., Furuichi, T., Gilby, I. C., Hashimoto, C., Hohmann, G., Itoh, N., Matsuzawa, T., Mitani, J. C., Mjungu, D. C., et al. (2012) · The 81st Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, Portland, OR · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationLong-term studies of the Gombe chimpanzees
Wilson, M. L. (2012) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 137 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees
Samuni, L., Preis, A., Mundry, R., Deschner, T., Crockford, C., & Wittig, R. M. (2017) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1616812114 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Proving communal warfare among hunter‐gatherers: The quasi‐rousseauan error
Gat, A. (2015) · Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews · doi:10.1002/evan.21446 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
A solution to the collective action problem in between-group conflict with within-group inequality
Sergey Gavrilets, B., & Fortunato, L. (2014) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms4526 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
The emergence of human warfare: Current perspectives
Kissel, M., & Kim, N. C. (2018) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.23751 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Furuichi, T. (2020) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-020-00134-x · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Gilby, I. C., Wilson, M. L., & Pusey, A. E. (2013) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.04.012 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citationEisler, R. T., & Fry, D. P. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190935726.001.0001 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Human niche, human behaviour, human nature
Fuentes, A. (2017) · Interface Focus · doi:10.1098/rsfs.2016.0136 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Beyond the group: how food, mates, and group size influence intergroup encounters in wild bonobos
Lucchesi, S., Cheng, L., Janmaat, K. R. L., Mundry, R., Pisor, A. C., & Surbeck, M. (2019) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/arz214 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Intergroup Competition Enhances Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) In-group Cohesion
Samuni, L., Mielke, A., Preis, A., Crockford, C., & Wittig, R. M. (2019) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-019-00112-y · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Hames, R. (2019) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-019-09340-w · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Why do chimpanzee males attack the females of neighboring communities?
Pradhan, G. R., Pandit, S. A., & van Schaik, C. P. (2014) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.22589 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Glowacki, L. (2022) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x22002862 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
The Conditions Favoring Between-Community Raiding in Chimpanzees, Bonobos, and Human Foragers
Pandit, S. A., Pradhan, G. R., Balashov, H., & van Schaik, C. P. (2015) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-015-9252-5 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Spoils division rules shape aggression between natural groups
Doğan, G., Glowacki, L., & Rusch, H. (2018) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0338-z · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Jaeggi, A. V., Boose, K. J., White, F. J., & Gurven, M. (2016) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/1568539x-00003347 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Searching for the “Roots” of Masculinity in Primates and the Human Evolutionary Past
Fuentes, A. (2020) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/711582 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
DEANE‐DRUMMOND, C. E. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843467.001.0001 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
The controversial origins of war and peace: apes, foragers, and human evolution
Glowacki, L. (2024) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2024.106618 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Figueredo, A. J., Peñaherrera‐Aguirre, M., Fernandes, H. B. F., Lomayesva, S., Menie, M. A. W. O., Hertler, S. C., & Sarraf, M. A. (2019) · Politics and the Life Sciences · doi:10.1017/pls.2019.12 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Did Human Culture Emerge in a Cultural Evolutionary Transition in Individuality?
Davison, D. R., Andersson, C., Michod, R. E., & Kuhn, S. L. (2021) · Biological Theory · doi:10.1007/s13752-021-00382-x · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Ruse, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197621288.001.0001 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Janus faced: The co‐evolution of war and peace in the human species
Meijer, H. (2024) · Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews · doi:10.1002/evan.22027 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Ferguson, R. B. (2023) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197506752.001.0001 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Uniquely Human: Cultural Norms and Private Acts of Mercy in the War Zone
Straight, B. (2017) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1111/aman.12905 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
War at the Door: Evolutionary Considerations of Warfare and Female Fighters
Bengtson, J. D., & O’GORMAN, J. A. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-48396-2_3 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Myths About the Evolution of War: Apes, Foragers, and the Stories We TellPreprint
Glowacki, L. (2023) · doi:10.32942/x2jc71 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Eisler, R. T. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190935726.003.0001 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Chimpanzee Intercommunity Conflict: Fitness Outcomes, Power Imbalances, and Multilevel Selection
Peñaherrera‐Aguirre, M., Figueredo, A. J., & Hertler, S. C. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-49520-6_8 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The myth of declining violence: Liberal evolutionism and violent complexity
Lewis, J., & Lewis, B. (2017) · International Journal of Cultural Studies · doi:10.1177/1367877916682108 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Lethal Intergroup Competition in Non-State Societies: From Small-Scale Raids to Large-Scale Battles
Peñaherrera‐Aguirre, M., Figueredo, A. J., & Hertler, S. C. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-49520-6_9 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Chimpanzees are not more aggressive than bonobos but target sexes differently
Bryon, E., Roth, T. S., Torfs, J. R. R., Eens, M., van Leeuwen, E. J. C., & Staes, N. (2026) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adz2433 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Wilson, M. L. (2024) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x23002546 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationEvidence and conceptual models for the evolution of war: a response to and
Wilson, M. L. (2025) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106685 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationReassuring body contact promotes social tolerance in bonobos and chimpanzees
Brooker, J. S., Goldsborough, Z., van Leeuwen, E. J. C., Kordon, S., Webb, C. E., & Clay, Z. (2026) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2025.3190 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
DEANE‐DRUMMOND, C. E. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843467.003.0008 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.006 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Nonhuman Primates: Between-Group Conflicts
Aguirre, M. P., Fernandes, H. B. F., & Figueredo, A. J. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3_620 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Payne, K. (2015) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137428592_2
Lawrence H. Keeley: Pre-state Societies in the Hobbesian Trap
Hertler, S. C., Figueredo, A., Peñaherrera-Aguirre, M., & Fernandes, H. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90125-1_12
Eisler, R. T. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190935726.003.0011
Evolution, Ideology, and Human Nature
Eisler, R. T. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190935726.003.0002
The Original Partnership Societies
Eisler, R. T. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190935726.003.0007
Eisler, R. T. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190935726.003.0004
Love, the Brain, and Becoming Human
Eisler, R. T. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190935726.003.0003
Two Alternate Social Possibilities
Eisler, R. T. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190935726.003.0006
Contracting or Expanding Consciousness
Eisler, R. T. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190935726.003.0008
DEANE‐DRUMMOND, C. E. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843467.003.0001
DEANE‐DRUMMOND, C. E. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843467.003.0004
DEANE‐DRUMMOND, C. E. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843467.003.0003
DEANE‐DRUMMOND, C. E. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843467.003.0005
DEANE‐DRUMMOND, C. E. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843467.003.0007
DEANE‐DRUMMOND, C. E. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843467.003.0010
DEANE‐DRUMMOND, C. E. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843467.003.0006
DEANE‐DRUMMOND, C. E. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843467.003.0011
DEANE‐DRUMMOND, C. E. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843467.003.0009
Developmental Factors in Violence Propensity
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.005
DEANE‐DRUMMOND, C. E. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198843467.003.0002
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.009
Major UN Initiatives to Address Violence, 1986–2018
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.013
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.015
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.001
The Prospect of Human Violence
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.002
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.004
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.010
Advancing a Global Public Health Response to Violence
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.007
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.012
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.011
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.008
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.003
(2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119118206.biblio
Whittington, R., McGuire, J., & Peres, M. F. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139086486.014
Nonhuman Primates: Between-Group Conflicts
Peñaherrera‐Aguirre, M., Fernandes, H. B. F., & Figueredo, A. J. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_620-1
Eisler, R. T. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190935726.003.0012
Peñaherrera‐Aguirre, M., & Jurgensen, J. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_2102-1
Peñaherrera‐Aguirre, M., & Jurgensen, J. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55065-7_2102
Ruse, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197621288.003.0007
Ruse, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197621288.002.0006
Ruse, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197621288.003.0003
Ruse, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197621288.003.0004
Ruse, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197621288.003.0005
Ruse, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197621288.003.0002
Ruse, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197621288.002.0003
Ruse, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197621288.002.0004
Ruse, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197621288.003.0001
Ruse, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197621288.003.0006
Ruse, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197621288.002.0007
Explaining the War and Its Aftermath
Ferguson, R. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197506752.003.0006
Scale and Geopolitics at Ngogo
Ferguson, R. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197506752.003.0013
Central Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes troglodytes
Ferguson, R. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197506752.003.0019
Ferguson, R. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197506752.003.0008
Human Impact, Critiqued and Documented
Ferguson, R. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197506752.003.0029
Ferguson, R. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197506752.003.0003
Ferguson, R. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197506752.003.0004
Ferguson, R. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197506752.003.0011
Sociality and Intergroup Relations
Ferguson, R. B. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197506752.003.0022
- Authors
- Wilson, M. L.
- Corresponding author
- Wilson, Michael L.
- ORCID
- Wilson, Michael L.
- Venue
- War, Peace, and Human Nature
- Publisher
- Oxford University PressNew York
- Published
- 2013-04-12
- Pages
- 361-388
- OpenAlex
- W2481970049
- Cited by
- 133
- References
- 137
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 11.31
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Violence, Religion, and Philosophy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Keywords
- chimpanzees, intergroup aggression, causes of war, primate social behavior, peace
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
