Cooperation and competition in chimpanzees: Current understanding and future challenges
Abstract
Two goals in the study of evolutionary anthropology are to determine the factors that make humans unique and to reconstruct the evolution of our behavior. As humans' closest living relatives, chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes ) and bonobos ( Pan paniscus ) have always been of special interest in this regard. Because of their close evolutionary relationship to us, these animals provide the requisite comparative data to evaluate claims made about human uniqueness. In addition, knowledge of the differences among chimpanzees, bonobos, and us furnishes important insights into the changes that occurred during human evolution. Given these circumstances, studies of chimpanzees and bonobos remain high priorities for research. The volatile political situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, home to bonobos, has made long‐term study of their behavior difficult, if not impossible. In contrast, field research on chimpanzees, initiated by Jane Goodall 1 and Toshisada Nishida 2 nearly 50 years ago, continues to grow and thrive. While past and ongoing field work has added enormously to our understanding of the behavior of chimpanzees, 3–8 gaps in knowledge persist. In this paper, I summarize some of these gaps, giving special emphasis to male cooperation and female competition.
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Like humans, chimpanzee societies exhibit intragroup coordination and coalitionary support during violent intergroup conflicts.
“Like humans, chimpanzee societies exhibit intragroup coordination and coalitionary support during violent intergroup conflicts.”
From Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees (2017) · cites this paper as [17]
The fundamental need for within-group support in times of rising between-group conflict is not uniquely human but apparently also present in one of our closest living relatives, the chimpanzee.
“The fundamental need for within-group support in times of rising between-group conflict is not uniquely human but apparently also present in one of our closest living relatives, the chimpanzee (11, 17).”
From Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees (2017) · cites this paper as [17]
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Self-citationThe Recent Rise to the Alpha-Rank in a Population of Free-Living Chimpanzees
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Chimpanzees Share Forbidden Fruit
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Carnivority and Cannibalism Observed among Forest-living Chimpanzees
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Relatedness in wild chimpanzees: Influence of paternity, male philopatry, and demographic factors
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Reciprocal exchange in chimpanzees and other primates
Mitani, J. C. (2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/3-540-28277-7_6 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Self-citationGilby, I. C., & Wrangham, R. W. (2007) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-007-0410-6 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Demographic and social constraints on male chimpanzee behaviour
Mitani, J. C., Watts, D. P., Pepper, J. W., & Merriwether, D. A. (2002) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1006/anbe.2002.4014 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
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Hierarchy and social status in Budongo chimpanzees
Newton‐Fisher, N. E. (2004) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-003-0064-6 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Sociobiology of the great apes and the hominid ancestor
Ghiglieri, M. P. (1987) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/0047-2484(87)90065-0 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
The efficacy of female choice in chimpanzees of the Taï Forest, Côte d’Ivoire
Stumpf, R. M., & Boesch, C. (2006) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-006-0219-8 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Female Competition over Core Areas in Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii, Kibale National Park, Uganda
Kahlenberg, S. M., Thompson, M. E., & Wrangham, R. W. (2008) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-008-9276-3 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN RESIDENT AND IMMIGRANT FEMALE CHIMPANZEES
Nishida, T. (1989) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.4159/harvard.9780674183858.c10 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Do Chimpanzees Hunt Cooperatively?
Busse, C. D. (1978) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/283318 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
The chimpanzees of Kibale forest
McGrew, W. C. (1985) · Ethology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1016/0162-3095(85)90010-x · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Severe Aggression Among Female Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii at Gombe National Park, Tanzania
Pusey, A. E., Murray, C. M., Wallauer, W., Wilson, M. L., Wroblewski, E. E., & Goodall, J. R. (2008) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-008-9281-6 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
New cases of inter-community infanticide by Male Chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda
Watts, D. P., Sherrow, H. M., & Mitani, J. C. (2002) · Primates · doi:10.1007/bf02629601 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Self-citationSociocognitive Development in Chimpanzees: A Synthesis of Laboratory Work and Fieldwork
Matsuzawa, T. (2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/4-431-30248-4_1 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Sayers, K., & Lovejoy, C. O. (2008) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/523675 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Feeding behaviour of wild chimpanzees : A preliminary report
Goodall, J. (1963) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Fatal Chimpanzee Attack in Loango National Park, Gabon
Boesch, C., Head, J. S., Tagg, N., Arandjelovic, M., Vigilant, L., & Robbins, M. M. (2007) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-007-9201-1 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Gilby, I. C., Eberly, L. E., Pintea, L., & Pusey, A. E. (2006) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.01.013 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Galdikas, B. M. F., Goodall, J., Shapiro, G. L., Sheeran, L. K., & Briggs, N. E. (2001) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/b107546 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Predation of Mammals by the Chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains, Tanzania
Hosaka, K., Nishida, T., Hamai, M., Matsumoto–Oda, A., & Uehara, S. (2002) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-47461-1_11 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Toward a general model for male-male coalitions in primate groups
van Schaik, C. P., Pandit, S. A., & Vogel, E. R. (2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/3-540-28277-7_9 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Wakefield, M. L. (2008) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-008-9280-7 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
The fate of defeated alpha male chimpanzees in relation to their social networks
Uehara, S., Hiraiwa‐Hasegawa, M., Hosaka, K., & Hamai, M. (1994) · Primates · doi:10.1007/bf02381485 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Pusey, A. E., Wilson, M. L., & Collins, D. (2008) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.20567 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Alpha male chimpanzee grooming patterns: implications for dominance “style”
Foster, M. W., Gilby, I. C., Murray, C. M., Johnson, A., Wroblewski, E. E., & Pusey, A. E. (2008) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.20632 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Hayaki, H., Huffman, M. A., & Nishida, T. (1989) · Primates · doi:10.1007/bf02381303 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Paleopathology of skeletal fluorosis
Littleton, J. (1999) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199908)109:4 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationRanging behavior and territoriality in chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda
Amsler, S. J. (2009) · Deep Blue (University of Michigan) · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Hunting of Mammalian Prey by Budongo Forest Chimpanzees
Newton‐Fisher, N. E., Notman, H., & Reynolds, V. (2003) · Folia Primatologica · doi:10.1159/000067454 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Jones, N. G. B., & McGuire, M. T. (1979) · Ethology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1016/0162-3095(79)90002-5 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Chimpanzees in the Budongo Forest, 1962–1992
Reynolds, V. (1992) · Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1992.tb04470.x · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Maggioncalda, A. N., Czekala, N. M., & Sapolsky, R. M. (1999) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2345(200001)50:1 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Predation on mammals by chimpanzees in the montane forest of Kahuzi, Zaire
Basabose, K., & Yamagiwa, J. (1997) · Primates · doi:10.1007/bf02385921 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Nouvelles observations sur les chimpanzés de la forêt de Tai (Côte-d’Ivoire)
Boesch, C. (1978) · La Terre et La Vie Revue d Histoire naturelle · doi:10.3406/revec.1978.5004 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
New Insights into Chimpanzees, Tools, and Termites from the Congo Basin
Sanz, Morgan, & Gulick (2004) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.2307/3473169 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Sayers, & Lovejoy (2008) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.2307/20142605 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
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Adjuvant Therapy with Surgery: Immunotherapy — Overview
McGuire, W. P. (1981) · Cancer treatment and research · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-8207-9_2 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Circle, 2. C., 202, S., Louisville, 80027, C., & (720), P. (2013) · University of Colorado Press eBooks · doi:10.5876/9781607322252 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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Curry, O. S., Rowland, L. A., Van Lissa, C. J., Zlotowitz, S., McAlaney, J., & Whitehouse, H. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2018.02.014 · Cited by 528 · see citing works
Lethal aggression in Pan is better explained by adaptive strategies than human impacts
Wilson, M. L., Boesch, C., Fruth, B., Furuichi, T., Gilby, I. C., Hashimoto, C., Hobaiter, C. L., Hohmann, G., Itoh, N., Koops, K., et al. (2014) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature13727 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
Self-citationThe human socio-cognitive niche and its evolutionary origins
Whiten, A., & Erdal, D. (2012) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2012.0114 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Morality as Cooperation: A Problem-Centred Approach
Curry, O. S. (2016) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19671-8_2 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
“…examples of full-blown ‘reciprocal altruism’ have been found in non-human species (Amici et al., 2014 ; Clutton-Brock, 2009 ), although some aspects of reciprocity have been identifi ed in cleaner fi sh (Bshary & Grutter, 2006 ), vampire bats (Carter & Wilkinson, 2013 ), and primates (Mitani, 2009 ).”
BackgroundA practical guide to the study of social relationships
Silk, J., Cheney, D., & Seyfarth, R. (2013) · Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews · doi:10.1002/evan.21367 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Surbeck, M., Mundry, R., & Hohmann, G. (2011) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1572 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees
Samuni, L., Preis, A., Mundry, R., Deschner, T., Crockford, C., & Wittig, R. M. (2017) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1616812114 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
“The fundamental need for within-group support in times of rising between-group conflict is not uniquely human but apparently also present in one of our closest living relatives, the chimpanzee (11, 17).”
BackgroundTolerant food sharing and reciprocity is precluded by despotism among bonobos but not chimpanzees
Jaeggi, A. V., Stevens, J. M. G., & Van Schaik, C. P. (2010) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.21288 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Wilson, M. L., Kahlenberg, S. M., Wells, M. T., & Wrangham, R. W. (2011) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.11.004 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
“Chimpanzees live in fissionefusion groups (communities) in which individuals travel, forage and rest in fluid subgroups (parties), which may vary in size throughout the day but which rarely include even a majority of the community’s members (Goodall 1986; Mitani 2009).”
Female competition in chimpanzees
Pusey, A. E., & Walker, K. K. (2013) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0077 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Fröhlich, M., Kuchenbuch, P., Müller, G., Fruth, B., Furuichi, T., Wittig, R. M., & Pika, S. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep25887 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Chimpanzees, Warfare, and the Invention of Peace
Wilson, M. L. (2013) · War, Peace, and Human Nature · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199858996.003.0018 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“…observations from long-term study sites, it has become clear that intraspecifi c aggression constitutes a pervasive risk for chimpanzees (Mitani, 2009; Wilson & Wrangham, 2003), with intraspecifi c killings documented for 71 percent of study communities ( N = 17 communities at 10 sites;…”
BackgroundHow chimpanzees cooperate in a competitive world
Suchak, M., Eppley, T. M., Campbell, M., Feldman, R. A., Quarles, L. F., & de Waal, F. Β. Μ. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1611826113 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“aggressive raids are often conducted jointly (36, 37), they hardly count as an argument against the cooperative nature of chimpanzees.”
BackgroundSurbeck, M., Girard‐Buttoz, C., Boesch, C., Crockford, C., Fruth, B., Hohmann, G., Langergraber, K. E., Zuberbühler, K., Wittig, R. M., & Mundry, R. (2017) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.161081 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
A World Unto Itself: Human Communication as Active Inference
Vasil, J., Badcock, P. B., Constant, A., Friston, K. J., & Ramstead, M. J. D. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00417 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“Research examining the communicative behavior of extant non-human primates is crucial for understanding the evolutionarily nascent form of modern humans’ communicative motivations and skills (Call and Tomasello, 2007; Mitani, 2009).”
BackgroundEvolutionary precursors of social norms in chimpanzees: a new approach
von Rohr, C. R., Burkart, J. M., & van Schaik, C. P. (2010) · Biology & Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s10539-010-9240-4 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“This experiment supports anecdotal observations that chimpanzees treat food, including highly valued food such as meat, with remarkable ‘‘respect for ownership’’ (Goodall 1971; Mitani 2009) and hence possibly expect others not to steal it.”
ResultReciprocal Interactions Between Gut Microbiota and Host Social Behavior
Münger, E., Montiel-Castro, A. J., Langhans, W., & Pacheco‐López, G. (2018) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2018.00021 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“Primates live sometimes in large groups and tie long-lasting social bonds (Mitani, 2009), which increase their risk of exposure to parasites.”
BackgroundMoscovice, L. R., Surbeck, M., Fruth, B., Hohmann, G., Jaeggi, A. V., & Deschner, T. (2019) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.104581 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“In chimpanzees cooperation is mainly dyadic and is largely predicted by the strength and stability of grooming relationships between kin and a subset of non-kin bond partners (reviewed in Mitani, 2009).”
Long-Term Research on Chimpanzee Behavioral Ecology in Kibale National Park, Uganda
Watts, D. P. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-22514-7_14 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Wakefield, M. L. (2013) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.03.019 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“…P. t. schweinfurthii (Bugongo: Fawcett 2000; Emery Thompson & Wrangham 2006; Ngogo: Wakefield 2008) and West African, P. t. verus (Taï: Lehmann & Boesch 2008) subspecies, the traditional view of chimpanzee social structure still holds strong in the literature (e.g. see Mitani 2009).”
Duda, P., & Zrzavý, J. (2013) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.07.009 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“The fundamental nature of female relationships is hard to assess in common chimpanzee due to females’ largely solitary lifestyle (Mitani, 2009).”
BackgroundGilby, I. C., Wilson, M. L., & Pusey, A. E. (2013) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.04.012 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“Male chimpanzees jointly defend group territories (Wilson & Wrangham 2003; Boesch et al. 2008; Mitani 2009), by advertising territory ownership with vocalizations and by attempting to repel or kill any strangers that they encounter (except for reproductively active females, especially those without infants).”
BackgroundInfluentialBray, J., & Gilby, I. C. (2020) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-020-02892-3 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Our finding that maternal brothers groomed more equitably than other dyads is consistent with prior studies (Mitani 2009b).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialNuman, M. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190848675.001.0001 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Gestural acquisition in great apes: the Social Negotiation Hypothesis
Pika, S., & Fröhlich, M. (2018) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-017-1159-6 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“The vocal-gesture shift may be selected for in evolutionary urgent contexts (e.g. hunting and patrol in chimpanzees, Mitani 2009), where predators or members of neighbouring groups severely impact upon individuals’ survival and reproductive success.”
BackgroundConsequences of maternal loss before and after weaning in male and female wild chimpanzees
Stanton, M. A., Lonsdorf, E. V., Murray, C. M., & Pusey, A. E. (2020) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-020-2804-7 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“…form highly differentiated, individually specific relationships and engage in a suite of cooperative and competitive behaviors, including food sharing, coalition formation during agonistic interactions, and territorial defense (Goodall 1986; Mitani 2009; Pusey and Schroepfer-Walker 2013).”
BackgroundIncomplete control and concessions explain mating skew in male chimpanzees
Bray, J., Pusey, A. E., & Gilby, I. C. (2016) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.2071 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Population-specific social dynamics in chimpanzees
van Leeuwen, E. J. C., Cronin, K. A., & Haun, D. B. M. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1722614115 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“The tendency for chimpanzees to cooperate in large parties (46, 47), even for targeted competition with neighboring groups (48), supports a multilevel selection explanation of population-level variation in chimpanzee interaction patterns.”
BackgroundSocial disappointment explains chimpanzees' behaviour in the inequity aversion task
Engelmann, J. M., Clift, J. B., Herrmann, E., & Tomasello, M. (2017) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.1502 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Revisiting the possibility of reciprocal help in non-human primates
Schweinfurth, M. K., & Call, J. (2019) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.06.026 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Surprisingly not all males engage in this behaviour equally often and no punishment has been recorded for not participating (Mitani, 2009).”
Backgroundvan Leeuwen, E. J. C., Mulenga, I. C., & Chidester, D. L. (2013) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-013-0672-5 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Knowing that chimpanzees typically form social bonds with a multitude of group members [e.g. see (Langergraber et al. 2009; Mitani 2009b)] and that they are proficient at socially acquiring social behaviour [e.g. (Lonsdorf 2013; van Leeuwen et al. 2012)], it would be interesting to find out to what…”
BackgroundCan bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) cooperate when solving a novel task?
Kuczaj, S. A., Winship, K. A., & Eskelinen, H. C. (2014) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-014-0822-4 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Distinguishing cooperation from tolerance is difficult, and often relies on detailed descriptions of coordinated activities across tasks and contexts (Mitani 2009; Tomasello and Call 1997; Watts and Mitani 2002).”
BackgroundTerritoriality, tolerance and testosterone in wild chimpanzees
Sobolewski, M. E., Brown, J. L., & Mitani, J. C. (2012) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.09.018 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“The Ngogo chimpanzees have been under continuous observation since 1995 (Mitani 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHow animals collaborate: Underlying proximate mechanisms
Duguid, S., & Melis, A. P. (2020) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1529 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“But this comparison goes beyond our phylogenetic proximity, as cooperation is integral to their social lives: chimpanzees spend time grooming each other, form complex coalitions and alliances within their groups, hunt together, share food, males patrol their community boundaries, and engage in coalitionary attacks in…”
BackgroundSandel, A. A., & Watts, D. P. (2021) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-020-00185-0 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Besides cooperating in intergroup aggression, males in the same community form strong social bonds with each other that involve frequent association and grooming (Mitani 2009b).”
BackgroundLangergraber, K. E., Rowney, C., Crockford, C., Wittig, R. M., Zuberbühler, K., & Vigilant, L. (2014) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.22258 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Social bonds predict dominance trajectories in adult male chimpanzees
Bray, J., Feldblum, J. T., & Gilby, I. C. (2021) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.06.031 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Long-Term Studies of the Chimpanzees of Gombe National Park, Tanzania
Wilson, M. L. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-22514-7_16 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“In general, males are more gregarious, often foraging in large parties, competing for dominance rank, grooming with allies, displaying at opponents, and mating with estrous females (Mitani 2009).”
BackgroundDynamics of intergroup competition in two neighboring chimpanzee communities
Mjungu, D. C. (2010) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Collective violence: An evolutionary perspective
Durrant, R. (2011) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2011.04.014 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Dubuc, C., Muniz, L., Heistermann, M., Widdig, A., & Engelhardt, A. (2012) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.03.003 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“, 2002), male dominance is not always based on individual attributes alone, but also on collective power resulting from coalition formation with allies and/or with female close relatives (Boesch, 2009; Furuichi, 1997; Mitani, 2009; Schülke et al., 2010; Surbeck et al., 2010).”
BackgroundFemale monopolizability promotes within-community killing in chimpanzeesPreprint
Massaro, A., Wroblewski, E. E., Mjungu, D. C., Boehm, E. E. B., Desai, N. P., Foerster, S., Rudicell, R. S., Hahn, B. H., Pusey, A. E., & Wilson, M. L. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-163673/v1 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Female parity, male aggression, and the Challenge Hypothesis in wild chimpanzees
Sobolewski, M., Brown, J. L., & Mitani, J. C. (2012) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-012-0332-4 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationCronin, K. A., & Sánchez, Á. (2012) · Advances in Complex Systems · doi:10.1142/s021952591250066x · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in some wild populations cooperatively hunt monkeys and work in stealthily coordinated teams to patrol the boundaries of their territory and investigate neighboring communities [5, 42].”
BackgroundThe Role of the Baldwin Effect in the Evolution of Human Musicality
Podlipniak, P. (2017) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2017.00542 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“observed in other primates, including our closest relatives—the chimpanzee (Mitani, 2009; Gilby et al., 2013), which suggests that hominins could use a similar strategy.”
BackgroundFearey, J., Elwen, S. H., James, B. S., & Gridley, T. (2019) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-019-01274-1 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“2017) and individual-based relationships between allies (Mitani 2009; Cassidy and McIntyre 2016).”
BackgroundSocial pressure drives “conversational rules” in great apes
Pougnault, L., Levréro, F., Leroux, M., Paulet, J., Bombani, P., Dentressangle, F., Déruti, L., Mulot, B., & Lemasson, A. (2021) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/brv.12821 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Power, E. A., & Ready, E. (2019) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2018.0070 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Sexual dimorphism in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) and human age-specific fertility
Muller, M. N., Jones, N. G. B., Colchero, F., Thompson, M. E., Enigk, D. K., Feldblum, J. T., Hahn, B. H., Langergraber, K. E., Scully, E. J., Vigilant, L., et al. (2020) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102795 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Additionally, coalitions and alliances are important for status striving and reproduction by male chimpanzees (Bray et al., 2016; Duffy et al., 2007; Gilby et al., 2013; Mitani, 2009; Muller and Mitani, 2005; Nishida, 1983; Nishida and Hosaka, 1996; Watts, 1998, 2018).”
BackgroundTennie, C., O’Malley, R. C., & Gilby, I. C. (2014) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.02.015 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“) at most sites where the two species are sympatric (Uehara, 1997; Mitani, 2009).”
BackgroundAlpha male replacements in nonhuman primates: Variability in processes, outcomes, and terminology
Teichroeb, J. A., & Jack, K. M. (2017) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.22674 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“High rank for males in these species may rely on coalitions with other males (Pan troglodytes, Mitani, 2009; Atelins, Strier, 1994) and relationships with high-ranking females (P. paniscus, Furuichi, 2011; Surbeck, Mundry, & Hohmann, 2011) to a greater degree than for males in species where males…”
BackgroundWarfare in an evolutionary perspective
Majolo, B. (2019) · Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews · doi:10.1002/evan.21806 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“isolated and largely out-numbered individuals, and kills them (Figure 3).(111,112) According to the imbalance of power hypothesis, asymmetric raids and ambushes were the primary mode of combat in human evolution,(9) and these can lead to lethal violence because the risk of injury and death for each attacking individua…”
Watts, D. P. (2015) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-015-0497-8 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Ontogeny and variability of trabecular bone in the chimpanzee humerus, femur and tibia
Tsegai, Z. J., Skinner, M. M., Pahr, D. H., Hublin, J., & Kivell, T. L. (2018) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.23696 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Diurnal Variation in Nutrients and Chimpanzee Foraging Behavior
Carlson, B. A., Rothman, J. M., & Mitani, J. C. (2013) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.22112 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Gathering at fruit trees leads to several chimpanzees congregating, permitting them to reestablish and maintain social bonds [Mitani, 2009].”
BackgroundSelf-citationApplication of insects to wounds of self and others by chimpanzees in the wild
Mascaro, A., Southern, L. M., Deschner, T., & Pika, S. (2022) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.12.045 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Bonobo personality predicts friendship
Verspeek, J., Staes, N., van Leeuwen, E. J. C., Eens, M., & Stevens, J. M. G. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-55884-3 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Rogers Flattery, C. N., Coppeto, D. J., Inoue, K., Rilling, J. K., Preuss, T. M., & Young, L. J. (2022) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-021-02369-7 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“2007, 2009; Mitani 2009).”
Scott, N. M. (2013) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.22133 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“This study supports the argument that gestural signaling may have evolved as a medium for social bonding as social groups became too large to maintain bonds through grooming alone [Pika, 2009; see also Dunbar, 1996]. de Waal [1993] suggested that sex differences among chimpanzees reflect “genetically implanted value s…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialParochial cooperation in wild chimpanzees: a model to explain the evolution of parochial altruism
Lemoine, S. R. T., Samuni, L., Crockford, C., & Wittig, R. M. (2022) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2021.0149 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“For instance, in wild chimpanzees, males ’ participation to border patrols is heterogenous [33,94,112], collective prey hunting can be influenced by the presence of impact hunters [29,129], and some individuals are the first to attack the out-group while others tend to remain behind [28,82].”
BackgroundWood, B. M., & Gilby, I. C. (2017) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.4159/9780674982642-010 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“1992) to 88 percent (Ngogo: Watts and Mitani 2002b) of all kills at sites where the two species coexist (Uehara 1997; Mitani 2009; Newton- Fisher 2014).”
BackgroundMasculinity, femininity, and leadership: Taking a closer look at the alpha female
Sumra, M. K. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0215181 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Wacewicz, S., & Żywiczyński, P. (2018) · Interaction Studies Social Behaviour and Communication in Biological and Artificial Systems · doi:10.1075/is.17031.wac · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…2008) evidence suggests that cooperation, while not completely absent, is severely limited in non-human apes: “it is arguably true that cooperation, with kin and nonkin alike, is a hallmark of humankind, setting us apart in a significant way from our closest living relatives” (Mitani 2009).”
Newton‐Fisher, N. E., & Kaburu, S. (2017) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.04.012 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“For example, Mitani (2009) showed that rank did not affect how enduring such relationships were, and while he reported that stronger grooming reciprocity existed between males of the same rank class, Newton-Fisher and Lee (2011) used individual level rankings to show that males close in social rank…”
InfluentialChimpanzee leader election optimization
Wibowo, F. W., Sediyono, E., & Purnomo, H. D. (2022) · Mathematics and Computers in Simulation · doi:10.1016/j.matcom.2022.05.007 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Adolescent male chimpanzees do not form a dominance hierarchy with their peers
Sandel, A. A., Reddy, R. B., & Mitani, J. C. (2016) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-016-0553-z · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Studies of adult male chimpanzees have shown that they too strive for status, forming dominance hierarchies in the process (Bygott 1979; Goodall 1986; Newton-Fisher 2004; Mitani 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPika, S., Klein, H., Bunel, S., Baas, P., Théleste, E., & Deschner, T. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-43301-8 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Sandel, A. A., & Reddy, R. B. (2021) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/1568539x-bja10062 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The Ecology and Evolution of Social Behavior and Cognition in Primates
Boesch, C. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199738182.013.0026 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“In all chimpanzee populations studied today with enough detail, males have been seen to hunt monkeys, duikers, and bushpigs for meat (Boesch and Boesch-Achermann 2000, Boesch 2009, Goodall 1986, Nishida et al. 1992, Mitani and Watts 2001, Mitani et al. 2002, Mitani 2009).”
BackgroundAlbiach‐Serrano, A. (2015) · Interaction Studies Social Behaviour and Communication in Biological and Artificial Systems · doi:10.1075/is.16.3.02alb · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Bayesian competitiveness estimation predicts dominance turnover among wild male chimpanzees
Hasegawa, M., & Kutsukake, N. (2014) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-014-1821-9 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Reproductive inequality among males in the genus Pan
Mouginot, M., Cheng, L., Wilson, M. L., Feldblum, J. T., Städele, V., Wroblewski, E. E., Vigilant, L., Hahn, B. H., Li, Y., Gilby, I. C., et al. (2023) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2022.0301 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Prieur, J., Barbu, S., Blois‐Heulin, C., & Pika, S. (2017) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2017.10.001 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“…and generally stable and cohesive groups whereas chimpanzees have less stable social structures since they live in multimale–multi-female groups characterized by a high degree of fissionfusion dynamics (e.g. Bradley et al., 2004; Goodall, 1986; Mitani, 2009; Schaller, 1963; Watts, 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialFleagle, J. G. (2013) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-378632-6.00007-0 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Cordoni, G., Ciarcelluti, G., Pasqualotto, A., Perri, A., Bissiato, V., & Norscia, I. (2023) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.23537 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Chimpanzees live in a fission‐fusion society and adult males— particularly maternal brothers—form strong and long‐lasting affiliative and cooperative bonds (Bray & Gilby, 2020; Gilby & Wrangham, 2008; Langergraber et al., 2007; Mitani, 2009).”
BackgroundWakefield, M. L., Hickmott, A. J., Brand, C. M., Takaoka, I. Y., Meador, L. M., Waller, M. T., & White, F. J. (2019) · Folia Primatologica · doi:10.1159/000496026 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Reproductive tolerance in male primates: Old paradigms and new evidence
Port, M., Schülke, O., & Ostner, J. (2018) · Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews · doi:10.1002/evan.21586 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“tionary support against males within their community and in terms of territorial conflicts with males from neighboring communities.(54) Coop-”
BackgroundSurvivor’s dilemma: Defend the group or flee?
Garay, J., & Varga, Z. (2011) · Theoretical Population Biology · doi:10.1016/j.tpb.2011.08.003 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Contrarily, male chimpanzees remain in their natal community, they cooperate to defend their territory (Mitani, 2009), and during territory defense the resident male sometimes is killed by the intruder group.”
BackgroundShibata, S., & Furuichi, T. (2024) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-024-01134-8 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“On the other hand, some male members of a chimpanzee group form coalitions, which may help them monopolize mating opportunities against other male members (Watts 1998; Duffy et al. 2007; Mitani 2009; Schülke et al. 2010).”
Kutsukake, N., Teramoto, M., Homma, S., Mori, Y., Matsudaira, K., Kobayashi, H., Ishida, T., Okanoya, K., & Hasegawa, T. (2011) · Ethology · doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2011.02009.x · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The Evolution of a Cooperative Social Mind
Cheney, D. L., & Seyfarth, R. M. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199738182.013.0027 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Cooperation and competition have same benefits but different costs
Francesco, L. D., Mazza, A., Sorrenti, M., Murino, V., Battegazzorre, E., Strada, F., Bottino, A., & Monte, O. D. (2024) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2024.110292 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“1,2 From an evolutionary point of view, cooperation enhances survival chances against predators, facilitates mating, and helps to attain resources collectively; thus, it increases the group’s overall survival fitness.”
Intermale Relationships in Wild Bonobos at Wamba
Shibata, S., & Furuichi, T. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-4788-1_23 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The Hormonal Correlates of Male Chimpanzee Social Behavior.
Sobolewski, M. (2012) · Deep Blue (University of Michigan) · Cited by 9 · see citing works
A reanalysis of strontium isotope ratios as indicators of dispersal in South African hominins
Hamilton, M. I., Copeland, S. R., & Nelson, S. V. (2023) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2023.103480 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Whither dominance? An enduring evolutionary legacy of primate sociality
Altschul, D. (2024) · Personality Neuroscience · doi:10.1017/pen.2023.13 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Females form coalitions as well, though more frequently among bonobos, as female chimpanzees are less gregarious by comparison (Mitani, 2009).”
BackgroundProlonged Sexual Receptivity in Females and Its Impact on the Evolution of Bonobos
Furuichi, T. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-4788-1_39 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Byrnit, J., Høgh‐Olesen, H., & Makransky, G. (2015) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/a0039351 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…whereas the sharing of high-value food (such as meat and prized fruit) has been well documented in both species in the wild (Boesch & Boesch, 1989; Mitani, 2009; Surbeck & Hohmann, 2008; Teleki, 1973), low-value food (such as plants) has not been found to be shared to the same degree (e.g.,…”
BackgroundInfluentialDominance, Egalitarianism and Friendship at a Dog Daycare Facility.
Trisko, R. K. (2011) · Deep Blue (University of Michigan) · Cited by 8 · see citing works
van Boekholt, B., & Pika, S. (2025) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106671 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Bray, J., Murray, C. M., Gilby, I. C., & Stanton, M. A. (2021) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-021-00235-1 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…bonds and cooperative interactions are valuable in several contexts, including dominance rank, mating access, and paternity success (Bray et al. 2016; Bray et al. 2021; Duffy et al. 2007; Feldblum et al. 2021; Gilby et al. 2013; Goodall 1986; Mitani 2009a; Muller and Mitani 2005; Watts 1998).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTemporal calling patterns of a captive group of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Pougnault, L., Lemasson, A., Mulot, B., & Levréro, F. (2021) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-021-00262-y · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Strong hierarchy among individuals and high degree of competition govern most chimpanzee social behavior (de Waal, 1982; Mitani, 2009; Murray et al., 2006; Pusey et al., 1997; van Lawick-Goodall, 1968).”
BackgroundSonnweber, R. S., Stevens, J. M. G., Hohmann, G., Deschner, T., & Behringer, V. (2021) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.23334 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Chimpanzees constitute a classic example of a primate species with high degrees of male – male competition (Boesch et al., 2006; Mitani, 2009).”
BackgroundSonnweber, R. S., Stevens, J. M. G., Hohmann, G., Deschner, T., & Behringer, V. (2022) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology11091275 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Our results are unexpected when considering that bonobos have a less pronounced physical sexual dimorphism than chimpanzees [22–24], and males of the two Pan species differ in terms of the intensity of mate competition and the benefits derived from such interactions [31,69], which led to speculation that adult male ch…”
ResultKutsukake, N., Teramoto, M., Honma, S., Mori, Y., Ikeda, K., Yamamoto, R., Ishida, T., & Hasegawa, T. (2018) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.23633 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Behavioral and physiological response to inequity in bonobos (Pan paniscus)
Verspeek, J., & Stevens, J. M. G. (2022) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.23455 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“As a result, male chimpanzees might benefit more from reacting to inequity when interacting with other males than with females (Brosnan et al., 2010; Goodall, 1986; Mitani, 2009).”
BackgroundRosenbaum, S., & Kuzawa, C. W. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105240 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Negrey, J. D., Deschner, T., & Langergraber, K. E. (2023) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2023.06.004 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
A unique zoo‐sanctuary collaboration for chimpanzees
Ross, S. R., Hansen, B. K., Hopper, L. M., & Fultz, A. L. (2019) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.22941 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Studies of wild chimpanzees describe the coalitions and alliances (primarily between males) formed to overpower and outcompete other group members for critical resources (see Mitani, 2009).”
BackgroundAge-related reproductive effort in male chimpanzees: terminal investment or alternative tactics?
Muller, M. N., Sabbi, K. H., Thompson, M. E., Enigk, D. K., Hagberg, L., Machanda, Z. P., Menante, A., Otali, E., & Wrangham, R. W. (2024) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2024.04.002 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Mitani, J. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Mitani, John C.
- ORCID
- Mitani, John C.
- Venue
- Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2009-09
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 215-227
- ISSN
- 1060-1538 (ISSN-L)
- 1520-6505
- OpenAlex
- W2043339913
- Cited by
- 156
- References
- 161
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 10.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Leakey Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Keywords
- chimpanzees, bonobos, cooperation, female competition, male cooperation, human uniqueness, evolution of human behavior, comparative primatology, primate social behavior
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